From 3984a76026c9703a3b80d807112b91f1207e463c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Geremia Date: Sat, 3 Feb 2024 15:43:32 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] =?UTF-8?q?'it=20religious'=20=E2=86=92=20'the=20religious?= =?UTF-8?q?'?= MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit --- ContraImpugnantes.htm | 176 +++++++++++++++++----------------- english/ContraImpugnantes.htm | 174 ++++++++++++++++----------------- 2 files changed, 175 insertions(+), 175 deletions(-) diff --git a/ContraImpugnantes.htm b/ContraImpugnantes.htm index cde0074a..d5383a58 100644 --- a/ContraImpugnantes.htm +++ b/ContraImpugnantes.htm @@ -125,7 +125,7 @@

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Thirdly, these same malicious men seek to hinder religious from preaching, and from hearing Confessions, by which means they might effect much good to souls. “Prohibiting us to speak to the Gentiles, that they may be saved” (1 Thes. ii. 16). Quarto eos ad laborem manuum compellunt, ut sic gravati sui status taedium habeant, et in praedictis impediantur, secundum consilium Pharaonis dicentis, Exod. I, 9-10: ecce populus filiorum Israel multus, et fortior nobis est. Venite, sapienter opprimamus eum: et infra: praeposuit itaque eis magistros operum. Glossa: Pharao significat zabulum, qui luti et lateris imponit gravissimum iugum, servitutem scilicet terreni et lutulenti operis. - Fourthly, they seek to oblige religious to labour with their hands, that so they may become weary of, and be disgusted with, their state of life; and that they, may be impeded in the discharge of their spiritual functions. They were anticipated in this device by that King Pharaoh, who said, “See, the people of the children of Israel are numerous and stronger than we. Come let us wisely oppress them...” “Therefore,” it is added, “he set over them masters of the works “ (Exod . i. 9). According to the Gloss, “ Pharaoh means Zabulum who imposes a heavy yoke of earth, signifying the labour of tilling the soil.” + Fourthly, they seek to oblige religious to labour with their hands, that so they may become weary of, and be disgusted with, their state of life; and that they, may be impeded in the discharge of their spiritual functions. They were anticipated in this device by that King Pharaoh, who said, “See, the people of the children of Israel are numerous and stronger than we. Come let us wisely oppress them...” “Therefore,” it is added, “he set over them masters of the works “(Exod . i. 9). According to the Gloss, “Pharaoh means Zabulum who imposes a heavy yoke of earth, signifying the labour of tilling the soil.” Quinto eorum perfectionem vituperant, et blasphemant, scilicet paupertatem mendicam. II Pet. II, 2: multi sequuntur eorum luxurias, per quos via veritatis blasphematur, idest bona opera, secundum Glossam. Fifthly, the enemies of religious malign them, and blaspheme against their perfection, i.e. the poverty of the Mendicant Orders. “Many shall follow their luxuries; through whom the way of truth shall be evilly spoken of” (2 Peter ii, 2). The Gloss understands by “the way of truth,” good works. @@ -163,10 +163,10 @@

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What is Meant by Religion? What Does its Perfection Consist In? Ut autem religionis naturam cognoscere valeamus, huius nominis originem inquiramus. Nomen igitur religionis, ut Augustinus in libro de vera religione innuere videtur, a religando sumptum est. Illud autem proprie ligari dicitur quod ita uni adstringitur quod ei ad alia divertendi libertas tollatur. Sed religatio iteratam ligationem importans, ostendit ad illud aliquem ligari cui primo coniunctus fuerat, et ab eo distare incepit. Et quia omnis creatura prius in Deo extitit quam in se ipsa, et a Deo processit, quodammodo ab eo distare incipiens secundum essentiam per creationem; ideo rationalis creatura ad ipsum Deum religari debet, cui primo coniuncta fuerat etiam antequam esset, ut sic ad locum unde exeunt flumina revertantur, Eccle. I, 7. Et ideo Augustinus in Lib. de vera religione dicit: religet nos religio uni omnipotenti Deo: et habetur in Glossa Rom. XI, 36, super illud, ex ipso et per ipsum et cetera. - In order to understand the meaning of religion, we must know the etymology of the word. St. Augustine, in his book De vera religione considers it to be derived from re-ligare (to re-bind). One thing is bound to another, when it is so joined to it, that it cannot separate from it, and unite itself to anything else. The word re-binding, however, implies that one thing, though united to another, has begun, in some degree, to disconnect itself from that other. Now every creature existed, originally, rather in God than in itself. By creation, however, it came forth from God, and, in a certain measure, it began, in its essence, to have an existence apart from Him. Hence every rational creature ought to be reunited to God, to whom it was united before it existed apart from Him, even as “unto the place whence the rivers come, they return to flow again” (Ecclesiast . i.). Therefore, St. Augustine says, (De vera religione), “ Religion reunites us to the one Almighty God.” We find the same idea expressed in the commentary of the Gloss, on the words, “for of Him, and by Him” (Rom. xi. 36). + In order to understand the meaning of religion, we must know the etymology of the word. St. Augustine, in his book De vera religione considers it to be derived from re-ligare (to re-bind). One thing is bound to another, when it is so joined to it, that it cannot separate from it, and unite itself to anything else. The word re-binding, however, implies that one thing, though united to another, has begun, in some degree, to disconnect itself from that other. Now every creature existed, originally, rather in God than in itself. By creation, however, it came forth from God, and, in a certain measure, it began, in its essence, to have an existence apart from Him. Hence every rational creature ought to be reunited to God, to whom it was united before it existed apart from Him, even as “unto the place whence the rivers come, they return to flow again” (Ecclesiast . i.). Therefore, St. Augustine says, (De vera religione), “Religion reunites us to the one Almighty God.” We find the same idea expressed in the commentary of the Gloss, on the words, “for of Him, and by Him” (Rom. xi. 36). Prima autem ligatio quo homo Deo ligatur, est per fidem, ut dicitur Hebr. XI, 6: accedentem ad Deum oportet credere quia est. Huius quidem fidei protestatio, latria est, quae cultum Deo exhibet, quasi recognoscens eum esse principium: unde religio primo et principaliter latriam significat, quae Deo cultum exhibet in verae fidei protestationem. Et hoc est quod Augustinus dicit, X de civitate Dei, quod religio non quemlibet, sed Dei cultum significare videtur: et hoc modo Tullius religionem definit in veteri rhetorica, dicens: religio est quae superiori cuidam naturae, quam divinam vocant, curam caeremoniamque affert. Et sic primo et principaliter ad veram religionem pertinere noscuntur quaecumque ad fidem integram pertinent, et ad debitam latriae servitutem. Sed secundo ad religionem pertinere noscuntur omnia illa in quibus possumus Deo servitium exhibere: quia, ut Augustinus dicit in Enchir., Deus colitur non solum fide, sed spe et caritate; ut sic omnia caritatis opera religionis esse dicantur. Unde Iac. I, 27: religio munda et immaculata apud Deum et patrem haec est, visitare pupillos et viduas in tribulatione eorum et cetera. - The first bond whereby man is united to God, is that of Faith. For, “ he who comes to God must believe” (Heb. xi. 6). Latria, which is the worship of God as the Beginning of all things, is the duty of man in this life. Hence religion, primarily and chiefly, signifies latria, which renders worship to God by the expression of the true Faith. St. Augustine makes the same observation in his De civitate Dei (book 10), where he says, “Religion signifies not worship of any kind, but the worship of God.” Cicero in his ancient Rhetoric gives almost the same definition of religion. He says that “Religion is that which presents certain homage and ceremonies to a higher nature, which men call the Divine Nature.” Hence all that belongs to the true Faith, and the homage of latria which we owe to God, are the primary and chief elements of religion. But, religion is affected, in a secondary manner, by everything by which we manifest our service to God. For, as St. Augustine says in his Enchiridion, “God is worshipped not only by faith, but likewise by hope and charity. Hence all offices of charity may be called works of religion. In in this sense St. James says (i. 27), “Religion clean and undefiled before God and the Father, is this: to visit the orphans and the widow in their tribulation,” etc. + The first bond whereby man is united to God, is that of Faith. For, “he who comes to God must believe” (Heb. xi. 6). Latria, which is the worship of God as the Beginning of all things, is the duty of man in this life. Hence religion, primarily and chiefly, signifies latria, which renders worship to God by the expression of the true Faith. St. Augustine makes the same observation in his De civitate Dei (book 10), where he says, “Religion signifies not worship of any kind, but the worship of God.” Cicero in his ancient Rhetoric gives almost the same definition of religion. He says that “Religion is that which presents certain homage and ceremonies to a higher nature, which men call the Divine Nature.” Hence all that belongs to the true Faith, and the homage of latria which we owe to God, are the primary and chief elements of religion. But, religion is affected, in a secondary manner, by everything by which we manifest our service to God. For, as St. Augustine says in his Enchiridion, “God is worshipped not only by faith, but likewise by hope and charity. Hence all offices of charity may be called works of religion. In in this sense St. James says (i. 27), “Religion clean and undefiled before God and the Father, is this: to visit the orphans and the widow in their tribulation,” etc. Ex his ergo patet quod duplex est religionis acceptio. Una secundum sui nominis primam institutionem, secundum quod aliquis se Deo ligat per fidem ad debitum cultum; et sic quilibet Christianae religionis fit particeps in Baptismo, abrenuntians Satanae et omnibus pompis eius. Secunda prout aliquis ad aliqua opera caritatis se obligat, quibus specialiter Deo servitur vitae abrenuntians saeculari; et hoc modo religionis nomine ad praesens utimur. Caritas autem Deo debitum obsequium reddit secundum actus vitae activae et contemplativae. Et in actibus vitae activae diversimode secundum diversa officia caritatis, quae proximis impenduntur: et ideo sunt aliquae religiones institutae ad vacandum Deo per contemplationem, sicut religio monastica et eremitica; aliquae autem ad serviendum Deo in membris suis per actionem, sicut illorum qui ad hoc se Deo dedicant, ut infirmos suscipiant, captivos redimant, et alia misericordiae opera exequantur. Nec est aliquod opus misericordiae ad cuius executionem religio institui non possit, etsi non sit hactenus instituta. Religion then bears a twofold meaning. its first signification is that re-binding, which the word implies, whereby a man unites himself to God, by faith and fitting worship. Every Christian, at his Baptism, when he renounces Satan and all his pomps, is made partaker of the true religion. The second meaning of religion is the obligation whereby a man binds himself to serve God in a peculiar manner, by specified works of charity, and by renunciation of the world. It is in this sense that we intend to use the word religion at, present. By charity, befitting homage is rendered to God. This homage may be paid to Him by the exercise of either the active or the contemplative life. Homage is paid to Him by the various duties of the active life, whereby works of charity are performed towards our neighbour. Therefore, some religious orders, such as the monastic and hermetical, are instituted for the worship of God by contemplation. Others have been established to serve God in His members, by action. Such are the Orders wherein the brethren devote themselves to assisting the sick, redeeming captives, and to similar works of mercy. There is no work of mercy for the performance of which a religious order may not be instituted; even though one be not as yet established for that specific purpose. @@ -190,7 +190,7 @@

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But these three vows are, in the sight of God, not a sacrifice only, but also a holocaust. This, in the Old Law, was the most acceptable form of sacrifice. St. Gregory says (8 Homil. II. part. on Ezech.), “When a man vows to God one part only of his possessions, he offers a sacrifice. When, however, he offers all that he has, all that he loves, and his entire life to the Almighty, he presents to Him a holocaust.” Hence religion, understood in its secondary sense, in so far as it presents a sacrifice to God, imitates religion taken in its primary sense. There are some who renounce a part of the things which are sacrificed by the religious vows; but this partial renunciation is not perfect religion. The observances customary in religious orders are intended to be helps, either to the avoidance of what has been renounced by the vows, or to the accomplishment of the promises which religious make to God. Ex dictis igitur patere potest, secundum quid una religio possit perfectior altera iudicari. Ultima enim rei perfectio in finis consecutione consistit: unde debet principaliter ex duobus religionis perfectio iudicari. Primo, ex hoc ad quod religio ordinatur: ut dicatur illa esse religio eminentior quae digniori actui dedicatur: ut sic secundum comparationem activae et contemplativae vitae in utilitate et dignitate accipiatur comparatio religionum quae activae, et quae contemplativae vitae deputantur. Secundo ex comparatione religionis ad executionem illius ad quod est instituta. Non enim sufficit religionem aliquam ad aliquid altum institui, nisi sit taliter ordinata observationibus et modis vivendi, quod ad suum finem sine impedimento pertingat; sicut si duae religiones sunt institutae ad contemplandum, illa per quam homo liberior contemplationi redditur, debet perfectior iudicari. Sed quia, ut dicit Augustinus, nemo potest novam vitam inchoare, nisi veteris eum vitae poeniteat, quaelibet religio, per quam novam vitam homo inchoat, quidam poenitentiae status est, ut homo a veteri vita purgetur: - Hence we see that in a certain sense (secundum quid) one religious Order may be judged more perfect than another. The complete perfection of anything consists in its prosecution of the end to which it is ordained. The perfection of a religious Order depends, chiefly, upon two things. First, it depends upon the purpose for which the Order was instituted. That Order is the most perfect which is destined to the noblest work. Thus a comparison may be made between the active and contemplative Orders, according to the comparative utility and dignity of the active and contemplative life. Secondly, a religious Order is more or less perfect in proportion as it fulfils the end whereto it was instituted. It is not enough for an order to be established for a specific purpose, unless its customs and observances be adapted to the attainment of that purpose. It two Orders be founded for the sake of contemplation, that one in which contemplation is chiefly facilitated, must be considered the more perfect of the two. But because, in the words of St. Augustine, “ None can begin a new life, unless he repent of his old life,” any religious Order, in which a man begins to lead a new life, must be a state of penance, whereby he may be purged of his old life. + Hence we see that in a certain sense (secundum quid) one religious Order may be judged more perfect than another. The complete perfection of anything consists in its prosecution of the end to which it is ordained. The perfection of a religious Order depends, chiefly, upon two things. First, it depends upon the purpose for which the Order was instituted. That Order is the most perfect which is destined to the noblest work. Thus a comparison may be made between the active and contemplative Orders, according to the comparative utility and dignity of the active and contemplative life. Secondly, a religious Order is more or less perfect in proportion as it fulfils the end whereto it was instituted. It is not enough for an order to be established for a specific purpose, unless its customs and observances be adapted to the attainment of that purpose. It two Orders be founded for the sake of contemplation, that one in which contemplation is chiefly facilitated, must be considered the more perfect of the two. But because, in the words of St. Augustine, “None can begin a new life, unless he repent of his old life,” any religious Order, in which a man begins to lead a new life, must be a state of penance, whereby he may be purged of his old life. et secundum hoc tertio modo possunt comparari religiones, ut illa dicatur perfectior quae maiores austeritates habet, vel in ieiunio vel in paupertate, vel in aliis huiusmodi: quia opera satisfactoria debent esse poenalia. Sed primae comparationes sunt magis religioni essentiales: et ideo secundum eas est magis perfectio religionis iudicanda: et praecipue cum perfectio vitae magis consistat in interiori iustitia quam in exteriori abstinentia. For this reason, a third comparison may be made between religious Orders. That one being reputed the most perfect, wherein the most austerities and penitential exercises, such as fasts and poverty, are practised. But the first points which we have mentioned are the most essential to religious life. A conclusion as to the perfection of an Order, must, therefore, be based upon the perfection with which these points are observed. For perfection of religious life depends more upon interior justice, than upon external abstinence. @@ -252,7 +252,7 @@

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2. St. Jerome, likewise has been brought forward as an advocate against the propriety of teaching being undertaken by religious. This saint, in his epistle to Riparius and Desiderius against Vigilantius (and the words are quoted in Gratian, xvi. Quaest. I), writes thus: “The office of a monk is to mourn, not to teach.” Again, in VII. Quaest. I, cap. Hoc nequaquam, it is said, “The life of monks is one of subjection and discipline, not of teaching, nor ruling, nor of being pastors over others.” And as canons regular and other religious are classed as monks (as it is stated in Extra de postulando, ex parte, and Quod Dei timor), it follows that no religious way lawfully teach. Ad idem etiam addunt quod docere est contra religionis votum. Per votum enim religionis mundo abrenuntiatur. Omne autem quod est in mundo, est concupiscentia carnis, concupiscentia oculorum, et superbia vitae; per quae tria intelligunt divitias, delicias et honores. Magisterium autem honorem esse dicunt: quod probant per Glossam, quae est Matth. IV, 5 super illud statuit eum supra pinnaculum templi etc., in Palestina plana desuper erant tecta, et ibi erat sedes doctorum, unde populo loquerentur: ubi multos cepit Diabolus vanagloria, honore magisterii inflatos. Unde concludunt, quod docere est contra religionis votum. - 3. It is further argued, that teaching is contrary to the vow of a religious, whereby he renounces the world. “For all that is in the world is the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life,” by which we understand riches, pleasures, and honour. Now teaching is considered to be an honour; and this theory is thought to be supported by the Gloss upon the words of St, Matthew (iv. 5), “He set Him upon the pinnacle.” “In Palestine,” says the Gloss, “ the roofs were flat, and the Doctors sat thereon, and spoke to the people. The devil seduced many of them with vainglory. For they were puffed up by the honour of teaching.” On these words is based the conclusion that teaching is contrary to the vow of religious. + 3. It is further argued, that teaching is contrary to the vow of a religious, whereby he renounces the world. “For all that is in the world is the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life,” by which we understand riches, pleasures, and honour. Now teaching is considered to be an honour; and this theory is thought to be supported by the Gloss upon the words of St, Matthew (iv. 5), “He set Him upon the pinnacle.” “In Palestine,” says the Gloss, “the roofs were flat, and the Doctors sat thereon, and spoke to the people. The devil seduced many of them with vainglory. For they were puffed up by the honour of teaching.” On these words is based the conclusion that teaching is contrary to the vow of religious. Item. Religiosi tenentur ad perfectam humilitatem, sicut ad perfectam paupertatem. Sed ita tenentur ad paupertatem, quod non licet eis aliquid proprium possidere. Ergo ita debent humilitatem servare quod nullo honore potiantur. Magisterium autem est honor, ut probatum est. Ergo magisterium est eis illicitum. 4. Again, it is urged, that, Religious are bound as stringently, to practise perfect humility, as they are obliged to observe perfect poverty. As their vow of poverty forbids them to possess anything of their own, so the humility, to which they are bound, does not permit them to enjoy any honour. Teaching is, as has been proved, an honour. It is not lawful, consequently, for religious to teach. @@ -327,7 +327,7 @@

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Ad 1. The first argument, namely, that Our Lord gave a counsel to His disciples not to be masters, is, for several reasons, misleading. First, because the works of supererogation, concerning which the counsels are given, are rewarded by a peculiar recompense. “Whatever you spend over and above, I, at my return, will repay you” (Luke x. 33). These words are applied by the Gloss to works of supererogation. Hence it cannot be a counsel to abstain from works that are to be specially rewarded. Now teachers, like virgins, are promised a peculiar recompense. For we read in Daniel xii. 3, “Those who instruct” (i.e., by word and example, as the Gloss explains) “many to justice, (shall shine) as stars for all eternity.” Hence there is no better ground for saying that it is a counsel to refrain from the function of teaching, than there is for maintaining that it is a matter of counsel to abstain from virginity, or from martyrdom. Item consilium non potest esse de eo quod contrariatur praecepto vel consilio. Sed docere sub praecepto cadit vel sub consilio, ut patet Matth. ult.: euntes, docete omnes gentes etc. et Gal. VI, I: vos, qui spirituales estis, instruite huiusmodi in spiritu lenitatis. Non ergo de non docendo potest esse consilium. - Again, there cannot be a counsel which is contradictory either by another counsel, or by a precept. But teaching is a matter both of precept and of counsel. For our Lord said: “ Go, therefore, teach all nations” (Matt. viii. 19). St. Paul also writes: “You, who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of meekness” (Gal. vi. 1). Hence there can be no counsel forbidding us to teach. + Again, there cannot be a counsel which is contradictory either by another counsel, or by a precept. But teaching is a matter both of precept and of counsel. For our Lord said: “Go, therefore, teach all nations” (Matt. viii. 19). St. Paul also writes: “You, who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of meekness” (Gal. vi. 1). Hence there can be no counsel forbidding us to teach. Item consilia quae dominus proposuit, immediate ab apostolis observari voluit, ut eorum exemplo alii ad servanda consilia provocarentur: unde Paulus, I Cor. VII, 7, consilium de virginitate servanda proponens, dixit: volo omnes homines esse sicut me ipsum. Sed observatio huius quod dicunt consilium, scilicet abstinere a docendo, ad apostolos non pertinebat, cum ipsi ad docendum universum orbem mitterentur. Non ergo abstinere a docendo sub consilio cadit. Again, our Lord willed that His Apostles, should themselves put, His counsels in practice, in order that by their example, others should be led to their observance. Hence St. Paul, giving the counsel of virginity, says, (1 Cor. vii. 7), “I wish all were as I myself am.” But the Apostles certainly did not observe the so-called counsel not to teach. For they themselves were sent forth to teach over the whole world. Thus, there can be no counsel against teaching. @@ -339,7 +339,7 @@

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Further, as names are used to mean certain things, it is foolish to say that a name is forbidden, while the thing signified by it is allowed. Likewise, the observance of the Counsels was primarily the duty of the Apostles. It is only through their instrumentality that they are observed by any other persons. Now the name of Master cannot be forbidden by any counsel, since the Apostles called themselves both masters and teachers. “I am appointed a preacher and an apostle—I say the truth and do not lie—a doctor of the Gentiles in faith and truth” (1 Tim. ii. 7). “In which I am appointed a preacher and an apostle, and a teacher of the Gentiles” (2 Tim. i. 11). Restat ergo dicendum, quod hoc quod dominus dixit, vos autem nolite vocari Rabbi, non sit consilium, sed praeceptum, ad quod omnes tenentur; nec prohibetur actus docendi vel magisterii nomen, sed ambitio magisterii: unde, cum subiungit, nec vocemini magistri, Glossa: ne appetatis vocari. Nec quemlibet appetitum interdicit, sed inordinatum; ut ex Glossa prius inducta apparet, et ex hoc etiam quod de inordinato Pharisaeorum appetitu praemiserat, dicens: amant primos recubitus et cetera. Potest tamen aliter intelligi, secundum Glossam, ut etiam ex circumstantia litterae patet. Simul enim dominus prohibet ibidem patris nomen et magistri, hac ratione quia unus est pater noster qui in caelis est, et quia magister noster unus est Christus. Deus enim, ut Glossa dicit ibidem, pater et magister natura dicitur: et homo dicitur indulgentia pater, et magister ministerio. Prohibet ergo dominus ne auctoritas vitae naturalis seu spiritualis, aut etiam sapientiae, alicui homini attribuatur: unde dicit Glossa: vos autem nolite vocari etc., id est ne quae Deo debentur, vobis praesumatis; nec alios Rabbi vocetis, ne divinum honorem hominibus deferatis. Unde in alia Glossa dicitur, quod pater vocandus est aliquis, ut honor aetati deferatur, non ut auctor vitae habeatur. Magister ex consortio veri magistri et tanquam eius nuntius, pro reverentia eius ad quod mittitur, honoretur. Sic ergo patet quod dominus non prohibuit simpliciter nec praecepto nec consilio nomen patris aut magistri: alias quomodo sancti patres sustinuissent ut illi qui praesunt monasteriis, abbates, idest patres, vocarentur? Quomodo etiam Christi vicarius, qui debet esse totius perfectionis exemplar, Papa, idest pater diceretur? Augustinus etiam et Hieronymus episcopos quibus scribunt, Papas, idest patres, frequenter nominant. Stultissimum ergo est dicere, quod hoc quod dicitur, nolite vocari Rabbi, sit consilium. - It remains to be considered that our Lord’s words: “Do not be called Rabbi” are not a counsel but a precept, by which all men are bound. He did not wish to forbid the office of teaching, but the sin of ambition. Neither, when He added, “ nor masters,” did He forbid us to teach, nor yet to bear the name of master. What His words signify, according to the Gloss, is: “Do not desire to be called masters.” He forbids the desire of place. He does not forbid all such desire, but only such as is inordinate, and therefore unlawful. This has been proved both by a foregoing quotation from the Gloss, and also by Christ’s words about the Pharisees, “They love the first places,” etc. Nevertheless, these words, may (says the Gloss) bear another interpretation. If our Lord forbids us to be called by the name of master and teacher, He equally prohibits our bearing the name of Father; for we have one Father who is in Heaven and one Master Christ. “For God” (as the Gloss says) “is by nature both our Father and our Master.” A man may be called father to signify his tenderness; and master to denote the authority which he exercises. That which our Lord forbids is that to any man should be attributed either right over physical or spiritual life, or plenitude of wisdom. Hence the commentary of the Gloss on this prohibition of Christ is as follows: “Do not be called masters, as assuming to yourselves what is due to God. Do not you call others Rabbi, as paying to man Divine homage.” And in another place we find the following commentary on the same passage: “A man may be called father, as a mark of respect to his age, but not to denote that he is the author of life.” In the same way, a man may be addressed as master, meaning that he is united to the true master, and that we reverence Him whose commission he holds. But, if our Lord had absolutely forbidden, either by counsel or precept, the name of master to be given to men, the Fathers of the Church would certainly not have allowed monastic superiors to be called Abbots, a word equivalent to father. If the name father were forbidden, how could the Vicar of Christ, who ought to set an example of perfection, be called Pope or father? Again, both St. Augustine and St. Jerome frequently addressed bishops as popes or fathers. Hence it is the height of folly to pretend that the words, “Do not be called Rabbi,” are to be understood as a counsel. + It remains to be considered that our Lord’s words: “Do not be called Rabbi” are not a counsel but a precept, by which all men are bound. He did not wish to forbid the office of teaching, but the sin of ambition. Neither, when He added, “nor masters,” did He forbid us to teach, nor yet to bear the name of master. What His words signify, according to the Gloss, is: “Do not desire to be called masters.” He forbids the desire of place. He does not forbid all such desire, but only such as is inordinate, and therefore unlawful. This has been proved both by a foregoing quotation from the Gloss, and also by Christ’s words about the Pharisees, “They love the first places,” etc. Nevertheless, these words, may (says the Gloss) bear another interpretation. If our Lord forbids us to be called by the name of master and teacher, He equally prohibits our bearing the name of Father; for we have one Father who is in Heaven and one Master Christ. “For God” (as the Gloss says) “is by nature both our Father and our Master.” A man may be called father to signify his tenderness; and master to denote the authority which he exercises. That which our Lord forbids is that to any man should be attributed either right over physical or spiritual life, or plenitude of wisdom. Hence the commentary of the Gloss on this prohibition of Christ is as follows: “Do not be called masters, as assuming to yourselves what is due to God. Do not you call others Rabbi, as paying to man Divine homage.” And in another place we find the following commentary on the same passage: “A man may be called father, as a mark of respect to his age, but not to denote that he is the author of life.” In the same way, a man may be addressed as master, meaning that he is united to the true master, and that we reverence Him whose commission he holds. But, if our Lord had absolutely forbidden, either by counsel or precept, the name of master to be given to men, the Fathers of the Church would certainly not have allowed monastic superiors to be called Abbots, a word equivalent to father. If the name father were forbidden, how could the Vicar of Christ, who ought to set an example of perfection, be called Pope or father? Again, both St. Augustine and St. Jerome frequently addressed bishops as popes or fathers. Hence it is the height of folly to pretend that the words, “Do not be called Rabbi,” are to be understood as a counsel. Dato autem quod sit consilium, non sequitur quod omnes perfecti ad istud consilium teneantur. Non enim qui perfectionis statum profitetur, ad omnia tenetur consilia, sed ad ea tantum ad quae ex voto se ligat: alias alii apostoli, qui in statu perfectionis erant, tenebantur ad hanc supererogationem quam Paulus faciebat, ut non acciperent stipendia ab Ecclesiis quibus praedicabant; et ita peccabant, cum hoc non observarent, ut patet I Cor. IX, 15. Sequeretur etiam ex hoc religionum confusio, si omnes ad supererogationes omnes et consilia tenerentur: quidquid enim una supererogaret, omnes supererogare tenerentur, et sic inter eas nulla distinctio remaneret: quod est inconveniens. Non ergo ad omnia consilia perfecti tenentur, sed solum ad ea ad quae se obligant. But, even granted that these words were intended by our Lord as a counsel, it does not follow that all such as are perfect would be bound to observe it. For, those who make profession of the state of perfection are not under an obligation to obey all the counsels, but only such as they, by their vows, are bound to observe. Were it otherwise, the Apostles, who were in the state of perfection, would have been bound to perform the work of supererogation which St. Paul practised in taking no stipend from the churches in which he preached; and they would have sinned had they acted otherwise (1 Cor ix.). Were all religious equally bound to observe every counsel, and to perform every work of supererogation, great confusion would ensue, and the distinctions which now differentiate the various Orders would be abolished. Those who are in a state of perfection are not bound to observe all the Counsels, but only those to which their vows oblige them. @@ -484,10 +484,10 @@

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Ad 6. Again the words (2 Thes. iii. 6), “We charge you, brethren,” etc., were not uttered against religious, but against men who passed their time in idleness and misdeeds. Of these St. Paul says, “we have heard there are some among you who walk disorderly, working not at all, but curiously meddling,” or as, the Gloss says, “providing for their necessities by iniquitous means.” Similiter quod dicitur II Tim. III: hoc autem scito, quod in novissimis diebus etc., non pertinet ad religiosos, sed ad haereticos, ut patet per hoc quod dicit, blasphemi, Glossa, in Deum per haereses; et per hoc quod subdit: quemadmodum autem Iannes et Mambres restiterunt Moysi, sic et hi. Glossa, scilicet haeretici, resistunt veritati, homines reprobi, corrupti mente circa fidem. Nec obstat quod dicit, habentes quidem speciem pietatis, idest religionis. Religio enim accipitur ibi pro latria, quae fidem protestatur. In hac enim significatione religio est idem quod pietas, ut patet per Augustinum in 10 de civitate Dei. Dato etiam quod religiosi vel omnes vel aliqui tales essent, non tamen eorum esset a sua communione eos excludere: quod patet per Glossam quae habetur I Cor. V, 11 super illud: si is qui frater nominatur est fornicator aut avarus et cetera. Cum huiusmodi nec cibum sumere. Glossa: dicendo nominatur, ostendit non temere et quomodolibet sed per iudicium auferendos malos esse ab Ecclesiae communione; et si per iudicium auferri non possunt, tolerentur potius. Nos enim a communione quemquam prohibere non possumus nisi aut sponte confessum aut in aliquo iudicio vel ecclesiastico vel saeculari nominatum atque convictum. Hoc ergo dicendo, noluit hominem ab homine iudicari ex arbitrio suspicionis, vel etiam extraordinario usurpato iudicio; sed potius ex lege Dei secundum ordinem Ecclesiae, sive ultro confessum, sive accusatum atque convictum. Patet ergo, quod quamvis religiosi essent tales quales dicunt, non tamen possent eos a sua societate repellere nisi prius essent iudicio Ecclesiae condemnati. - Ad 7. Again the words (2 Tim. iii. 1), “Know also this,” etc., were written not to religious, but to heretics, “blasphemers” as St. Paul calls them, “who by their heresy blaspheme God” (Gloss). “As Jannes and Manbres resisted Moses so these also (i.e. heretics) resist the truth,” continues the Apostle, “ men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith.” It is true that he says, that the heretics of whom he speaks, had an appearance indeed of godliness,” i.e., of religion; but religion in this passage signifies latria, which makes a profession of faith. In this sense, it is, as St. Augustine says, (X De civitate Dei), equivalent to piety. But even granted that all or some religious were as infamous as certain men consider them to be, that would be ho reason for excluding them from intercourse with others. The Gloss, referring to the passage of St. Paul (1 Cor. v.,), concerning the man guilty of. incest, wherein he bids the Corinthians not so much as to eat with such an one, observes that, “the Apostle’s words, ‘if anyone that is named a brother,’ show that men are not to condemn each other rashly and carelessly, but that it is only after judgment has been pronounced that any sinner is to be excluded from communion with the Church. If such a sinner cannot be judicially excommunicated, he must be tolerated.” We have no right to exclude any man from the society of his fellows, unless he be, by his own confession, found guilty of some crime, or be denounced and convicted by some secular or ecclesiastical tribunal. Hence a man may not be condemned on suspicion, or by someone usurping the office of judge. He must be tried, accused and convicted according to the law of God, interpreted by the Church. Hence even were religious as reprobate as they are said to be, they ought not to be excluded from intercourse with the laity, unless they have been brought to judgment, and have been condemned. + Ad 7. Again the words (2 Tim. iii. 1), “Know also this,” etc., were written not to religious, but to heretics, “blasphemers” as St. Paul calls them, “who by their heresy blaspheme God” (Gloss). “As Jannes and Manbres resisted Moses so these also (i.e. heretics) resist the truth,” continues the Apostle, “men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith.” It is true that he says, that the heretics of whom he speaks, had an appearance indeed of godliness,” i.e., of religion; but religion in this passage signifies latria, which makes a profession of faith. In this sense, it is, as St. Augustine says, (X De civitate Dei), equivalent to piety. But even granted that all or some religious were as infamous as certain men consider them to be, that would be ho reason for excluding them from intercourse with others. The Gloss, referring to the passage of St. Paul (1 Cor. v.,), concerning the man guilty of. incest, wherein he bids the Corinthians not so much as to eat with such an one, observes that, “the Apostle’s words, ‘if anyone that is named a brother,’ show that men are not to condemn each other rashly and carelessly, but that it is only after judgment has been pronounced that any sinner is to be excluded from communion with the Church. If such a sinner cannot be judicially excommunicated, he must be tolerated.” We have no right to exclude any man from the society of his fellows, unless he be, by his own confession, found guilty of some crime, or be denounced and convicted by some secular or ecclesiastical tribunal. Hence a man may not be condemned on suspicion, or by someone usurping the office of judge. He must be tried, accused and convicted according to the law of God, interpreted by the Church. Hence even were religious as reprobate as they are said to be, they ought not to be excluded from intercourse with the laity, unless they have been brought to judgment, and have been condemned. In his autem quae sequuntur, in quibus apostolicae potestati derogant, non solum falsitatis, sed etiam haeresis crimen incurrunt: quia, ut dicitur in decretis, dist. 22, cap. omnes: qui Romanae Ecclesiae privilegium ab ipso summo omnium Ecclesiarum capite traditum auferre conatur, hic procul dubio in haeresim labitur: et infra: fidem quippe violat qui adversus illam agit quae est fidei mater. Hoc autem privilegium Christus Romanae Ecclesiae contulit, ut omnes ei sicut Christo obediant: unde dicit Cyrillus Alexandrinus episcopus in Lib. 2 thesaurorum: ut membra maneamus in capite nostro apostolico throno Romanorum pontificum, a quo nostrum est quaerere quid credere et quid tenere debeamus, ipsum venerantes, ipsum rogantes pro omnibus: quoniam ipsius solum est reprehendere, corrigere, statuere, disponere, solvere et loco illius ligare qui ipsum aedificavit; et nulli alii quod suum est plenum, sed ipsi soli dedit: cui omnes iure divino caput inclinant, et primates mundi tanquam ipsi domino Iesu obediunt. Unde patet quod quicumque dicit non esse obediendum his quae per Papam statuuntur, in haeresim labitur. - Ad 8. The attempt to derogate from the authority of the Apostles, is not only based on false premises, but is closely akin to heresy. For we find in the Decretals (dist. XXII. cap. Omnes) the following passage: “Whoever endeavours to wrest from the Roman Church the privilege bequeathed to her by the supreme head of all the churches is undoubtedly guilty of heresy.” And again, “ He acts contrary to faith, who acts against her who is the Mother of the Faith.” Now Christ granted to the Roman Church the privilege of being obeyed by all, as He Himself is obeyed, in order, as says St. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (II Thesaurorum), “that we may continue to be members under our Head, the Roman Pontiff, seated on the throne of the Apostles. From him must we learn what we are to believe and uphold. We are bound to revere him, and to entreat him for all things. To him alone does it belong to rebuke and to correct and to unloose, in the place of Him who has established him. To none other has this power been given, but to him alone, before whom all men do, by the divine command, abase their heads, and who is, by all the princes of the world, obeyed as if he were our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.” Hence it is clear that anyone who maintains that the Pope need not be obeyed is a heretic. + Ad 8. The attempt to derogate from the authority of the Apostles, is not only based on false premises, but is closely akin to heresy. For we find in the Decretals (dist. XXII. cap. Omnes) the following passage: “Whoever endeavours to wrest from the Roman Church the privilege bequeathed to her by the supreme head of all the churches is undoubtedly guilty of heresy.” And again, “He acts contrary to faith, who acts against her who is the Mother of the Faith.” Now Christ granted to the Roman Church the privilege of being obeyed by all, as He Himself is obeyed, in order, as says St. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (II Thesaurorum), “that we may continue to be members under our Head, the Roman Pontiff, seated on the throne of the Apostles. From him must we learn what we are to believe and uphold. We are bound to revere him, and to entreat him for all things. To him alone does it belong to rebuke and to correct and to unloose, in the place of Him who has established him. To none other has this power been given, but to him alone, before whom all men do, by the divine command, abase their heads, and who is, by all the princes of the world, obeyed as if he were our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.” Hence it is clear that anyone who maintains that the Pope need not be obeyed is a heretic. Quod autem obiiciunt, quod nullus potest cogi ad societatem invitus, ut lex dicit, patet quod intelligitur de privata societate, quae consensu duorum vel trium constituitur. Sed ad societatem publicam, quae non potest constitui nisi ex superioris consensu etiam superioris auctoritate, aliquis compelli potest; sicut princeps qui praeest reipublicae, potest compellere cives ut in sua societate aliquem recipiant; sicut etiam collegium alicuius Ecclesiae cogitur ut aliquem recipiat in canonicum vel in fratrem. Unde, cum collegium studii generalis sit publica societas, ad eam potest aliquis induci auctoritate superioris cogente. Ad 9. The objection that, according to law, no one can be forced to join an association against his will, applies only to a private society, established by two or three members. But a man can be compelled to form part of a public association, which cannot exist without the consent of authority. Thus, a prince may force the inhabitants of a certain city to accept an individual as their fellow-citizen; and an ecclesiastical society can be compelled to accept a man as a canon, or a brother. Hence as any general scholastic association is, in a certain sense, a society, any man may be obliged, by the authority of a superior, to belong to it. @@ -512,7 +512,7 @@

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THE enemies of religious, not content with trying to hinder them from producing fruit in the Church by teaching and expounding the Holy Scriptures, endeavour to do still further and greater harm, by preventing them from preaching and hearing confessions, in the hopes that thus they may be rendered unable either to encourage the faithful in virtue, or to eradicate vice. Those who act in this manner, clearly show themselves to be those persecutors of the Church, who, as St. Gregory says (20 Moral, on the words Quasi caputio tunicae), “make a special effort to hinder the word of preaching.” These enemies of religion adduce several arguments in support of their persecution. Inducentes primo illud quod habetur 16, qu. I: alia est causa monachi, alia clerici. Clerici oves pascunt; ego, scilicet monachus, pascor: et 7, qu. I, cap. hoc nequaquam, dicitur: monachorum cura subiectionis habet verbum, non docendi, vel praesidendi, vel pascendi alios. Praedicare autem est pascere populum verbo Dei. Ioan. ult.: pasce oves meas. Pascere oves est credentes, ne deficiant, confortare ut dicit Glosa. Ergo monachi, et alii religiosi, qui omnes monachorum iure censentur, praedicare non possunt. Hoc etiam expressius videtur haberi 16, qu. I, cap. adiicimus, ubi dicitur: statuimus ut praeter domini sacerdotes nullus audeat praedicare, sive laicus, sive monachus ille sit, cuiuslibet scientiae nomine glorietur. Item cap. iuxta: monachos a populorum praedicatione omnino cessare censuimus. - 1. First, they quote the words which occur XVI, quaest. I, “The office of a monk is one thing, that of a cleric is another. Clerics feed their sheep: I (being a monk) am fed.” Again in VII, quaest. I, cap. Nequaquam, the following words are found: “The duty of the monastic life is not to teach nor to preside nor to feed others with the word of God, but to be subject.” To preach is to feed with the Divine Word, as is seen in John xxi. 17. The Gloss on the words “feed my sheep,” says, that “to feed the sheep of Christ is to strengthen the faithful lest they fall away.” Hence monks, and religious who are counted as monks, cannot preach. This is more clearly laid down in XVI, quaest. I, cap. adjicimus, in which the following passage occurs: “We declare that, with the exception of the priests of the Lord, no one has license to preach, be he layman or monk, no matter how great a reputation for learning he may enjoy.” Again, in cap. Juxta we read as follows: “ We ordain that monks shall cease entirely from preaching to the people.” + 1. First, they quote the words which occur XVI, quaest. I, “The office of a monk is one thing, that of a cleric is another. Clerics feed their sheep: I (being a monk) am fed.” Again in VII, quaest. I, cap. Nequaquam, the following words are found: “The duty of the monastic life is not to teach nor to preside nor to feed others with the word of God, but to be subject.” To preach is to feed with the Divine Word, as is seen in John xxi. 17. The Gloss on the words “feed my sheep,” says, that “to feed the sheep of Christ is to strengthen the faithful lest they fall away.” Hence monks, and religious who are counted as monks, cannot preach. This is more clearly laid down in XVI, quaest. I, cap. adjicimus, in which the following passage occurs: “We declare that, with the exception of the priests of the Lord, no one has license to preach, be he layman or monk, no matter how great a reputation for learning he may enjoy.” Again, in cap. Juxta we read as follows: “We ordain that monks shall cease entirely from preaching to the people.” Inducunt etiam auctoritatem Bernardi super Cant., qui dicit: quod praedicare monacho non convenit nec novitio expedit, nec non misso licet. 2. St. Bernard likewise says in his work on the Canticles: “Preaching does not beseem a monk; it is not expedient for a novice; it is not permitted to anyone who is not sent to preach.” @@ -524,7 +524,7 @@

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4. The prophet Ezekiel asks: “Should not the flocks be fed by, the shepherds?” (xxxiv. 2). By “shepherds,” says the Gloss, are signified bishops, priests, and deacons, to, whom the flock is committed. Hence religious, being neither bishops, priests nor deacons, and having no charge of the flock, may not preach. Item. Rom. X, 15, dicitur: quomodo praedicabunt, nisi mittantur? Sed non legimus missos a domino nisi duodecim apostolos, Luc. IX, et septuaginta duos discipulos, Luc. X, ubi dicit Glossa, quod sicut in apostolis forma est episcoporum, sic in septuagintaduobus forma est presbyterorum secundi ordinis, qui scilicet sunt presbyteri parochiales. Adiungit autem apostolus, I ad Cor. XII, 28, opitulationes, idest eos qui maioribus ferunt opes, ut Titus apostolo, vel archidiaconi episcopis, ut Glossa ibidem dicit. Ergo nec religiosi, qui nec sunt episcopi nec presbyteri parochiales, nec archidiaconi, praedicare debent. - 5. Again, we read, (Ron. x. 15), “How shall they preach, unless they be sent? “ But, our Lord has sent none but the twelve Apostles (Luke ix), and the seventy-two disciples (Luke x). The “twelve Apostles,” says the Gloss, represent bishops, and the “seventy-two disciples” the priests of the second rank, or parish priests. St. Paul likewise (1 Cor. xii.) speaks of it “helps,” meaning those who assist their superiors, as Titus helped St. Paul, or as archdeacons help bishops. Religious, therefore, being neither bishops, parish priests, nor archdeacons, have no right to preach. + 5. Again, we read, (Ron. x. 15), “How shall they preach, unless they be sent? “But, our Lord has sent none but the twelve Apostles (Luke ix), and the seventy-two disciples (Luke x). The “twelve Apostles,” says the Gloss, represent bishops, and the “seventy-two disciples” the priests of the second rank, or parish priests. St. Paul likewise (1 Cor. xii.) speaks of it “helps,” meaning those who assist their superiors, as Titus helped St. Paul, or as archdeacons help bishops. Religious, therefore, being neither bishops, parish priests, nor archdeacons, have no right to preach. Item. In decretis dicitur dist. 68: corepiscopi tam ab hac sacra sede quam ab episcopis totius orbis prohibiti sunt: nimis enim improba eorum institutio est, et prava: et infra: nam non amplius quam duos ordines inter discipulos domini cognovimus; idest duodecim apostolorum, et septuaginta duorum discipulorum. Unde iste tertius processerit, ignoramus: et quod ratione caret, extirpare necesse est. Et ita ordo religiosorum qui praedicant et non sunt episcopi, qui sunt successores apostolorum; vel presbyteri parochiales, qui sunt successores septuaginta duorum discipulorum, debet extirpari. 6. We read in the Decretals (dist. LXVIII), “Chorepiscopi” are strictly forbidden both to this Holy See and to all bishoprics throughout the entire world. This institution is an abuse and corruption.” The reason of the prohibition is given in these words, “For, our Lord only, as we know, established two orders: the twelve Apostles, and the seventy-two disciples. Whence this order arose, we do not know, but, as there is no reason for its existence, it must be abolished.” Preaching religious (our adversaries add), being neither bishops (i.e. successors of the Apostles), nor parish priests (i.e., successors to the seventy-two disciples), ought likewise to be suppressed. @@ -545,7 +545,7 @@

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11. A preacher ought not to build upon another man’s foundation, nor to glory in another man’s converts. He ought, rather, to imitate St. Paul who says (Rom. xv. 20), “1 have so preached this gospel, not where Christ was named, lest I should build upon another man’s foundation.” And, again, the same Apostle says (2 Cor. x. 15), “Not glorying beyond measure in other men’s labours,” which words the Gloss explains as meaning “not glorying where another has laid the foundation of faith, which would be to glory beyond measure.” In the same chapter, St. Paul uses the expression, “not to glory in another man’s rule,” which the Gloss interprets as signifying not to glory in those who are under the government of another.” Therefore, those who have not the care of souls ought not to preach to such of the faithful as are entrusted to others. They ought, rather, to lay the foundation of the faith among unbelievers. Ulterius autem ostendere conantur, quod, confessiones audire non possunt. 16, quaest. I, cap. placuit: firmiter et insolubiliter omnes praecipimus ut aliquis monachus poenitentiam nemini tribuat. Et cap. placuit, dicitur, quod nullus monachorum praesumat neque poenitentiam dare, neque filium de Baptismo accipere, neque baptizare, neque infirmum visitare, neque mortuum sepelire, neque quibuslibet negotiis sese implicare. Item cap. interdicimus dicitur: interdicimus abbatibus et monachis publicas poenitentias dare, infirmos visitare et unctiones facere et cetera; ex quibus omnibus videtur quod monachis et religiosis, qui eodem iure censentur, non liceat confessiones audire. - 12. The adversaries of religious, not content with these efforts to prevent them from preaching, endeavour likewise to prove that they have no right to hear confessions. In support of this opinion, they quote from XVI, quaest. I, cap. Placuit: “We positively and irrevocably decree that no monk shall administer penance to anyone.” And in another chapter we find the words: “ Let no monk presume to administer penance, to receive a child to baptism, to visit or anoint the sick, to bury the dead, or to meddle with any office of the kind.” Again (Cap. Interdicimus), the following words occur: “We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penance, or to visit or anoint the sick.” From all these passages it appears evident, that monks and religious, (who are included under the same laws), have no right to hear confessions. + 12. The adversaries of religious, not content with these efforts to prevent them from preaching, endeavour likewise to prove that they have no right to hear confessions. In support of this opinion, they quote from XVI, quaest. I, cap. Placuit: “We positively and irrevocably decree that no monk shall administer penance to anyone.” And in another chapter we find the words: “Let no monk presume to administer penance, to receive a child to baptism, to visit or anoint the sick, to bury the dead, or to meddle with any office of the kind.” Again (Cap. Interdicimus), the following words occur: “We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penance, or to visit or anoint the sick.” From all these passages it appears evident, that monks and religious, (who are included under the same laws), have no right to hear confessions. Item. Rectoribus Ecclesiarum praeceptum est: diligenter agnosce vultum pecoris tui, Prov. XXVII, 23, Glosa: pastori Ecclesiae dicitur: diligenter adhibe curam eis quibus te praeesse contigerit: agnosce eorum actus et vitia quae in eis inveneris, citius castigare memento. Sed non possunt agnoscere actus et vitia subditorum pastores Ecclesiae nisi per confessionem ergo non debent aliis confiteri nisi suis rectoribus. 13. Further, in the book of Proverbs (xxvii. 23) the following exhortation is addressed to priests in charge of, churches: “Be diligent to know the countenance of your cattle.” The Gloss thus comments on these words: “The Pastor of a church is bidden to take diligent care of those committed to him. He must know their doings, and he must remember to correct the vices which he may observe among them.” But how is the pastor of a church to know the actions and failings of those under him, save by confession? Hence the faithful should not confess to any except to their own parish priest. @@ -696,13 +696,13 @@

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(4.) It now remains to be proved that religious are fit to perform the functions, of preaching and hearing confessions. For in XVI, quaest. I, cap. Pervenit it is stated that “without the license of their own bishop monks and abbots may not presume to administer penance.” Whence it follows that religious, when authorised by the Pope or by a bishop may lawfully hear confessions. Item. Quaestione eadem dicitur ex auctoritate huius decreti quod apostolico moderamine et pietatis officio a nobis est constitutum, sacerdotibus monachis, apostolorum figuram tenentibus, liceat praedicare, baptizare, communionem dare, pro peccatoribus exorare, poenitentiam imponere, atque peccata solvere. - Again, in the same chapter the following words occur: “ We, in our Apostolic discretion and tenderness, decree that it is lawful for monks who are priests and who represent the Apostles to preach, baptise, give communion, pray for sinners, impose penance, and absolve from sin.” + Again, in the same chapter the following words occur: “We, in our Apostolic discretion and tenderness, decree that it is lawful for monks who are priests and who represent the Apostles to preach, baptise, give communion, pray for sinners, impose penance, and absolve from sin.” Item. In seq. capitulo, sunt nonnulli, dicit Bonifacius Papa: credimus a sacerdotibus monachis ligandi solvendique officium, Deo cooperante, digne administrari, si eos contigerit hoc ministerio sublimari. Decertantes igitur monasticae professionis presbyteros sacerdotalis potentiae arcere officio, omnino praecipimus ut ab huiuscemodi ausibus reprimantur in posterum: quia quanto quisque celsior est, tanto et illis erit potentior. In the next chapter, Sunt tamen nonnulli, Pope Boniface speaks thus: “We believe that, by the operation of God, the office of binding and loosing may be worthily accomplished by monks in priestly Orders, if they have been deservedly exalted to this rank. We further ordain that for the future, those shall be reprimanded who contend that priests of the monastic profession are excluded from the exercise of the sacerdotal functions. For the higher a man’s rank the greater is his power.” Item. Episcopi debent divina iudicia imitari quantum possunt. I Cor. IV, 16: imitatores mei estote, sicut et ego Christi. Sed divino iudicio aliqui religiosi sunt reputati idonei ut eis immediate a Deo praedicationis committeretur officium, sicut de Equitio monacho b. Gregorius in dialogo narrat, et etiam de beato Benedicto. Ergo et iudicio episcoporum aliqui religiosi possunt reputari idonei ut eis praedicatio committatur. - Again, bishops are bound, as far as possible, to imitate the divine judgments. St. Paul says (1 Cor. ii, 1), “ Be imitators of me, as I also am of Christ.” But God has judged some monks worthy to preach without any human authorisation. This was the case with the monk Equitius, as St. Gregory relates (Dialog.) and also with St. Benedict. Hence bishops may rightly esteem certain religious to be fit to preach. + Again, bishops are bound, as far as possible, to imitate the divine judgments. St. Paul says (1 Cor. ii, 1), “Be imitators of me, as I also am of Christ.” But God has judged some monks worthy to preach without any human authorisation. This was the case with the monk Equitius, as St. Gregory relates (Dialog.) and also with St. Benedict. Hence bishops may rightly esteem certain religious to be fit to preach. Item. Omnia quae licent saecularibus clericis, licent et religiosis, exceptis his quae in sua regula eis prohibentur. Arg. 16, q. 1: sunt nonnulli: ubi dicitur, quod monachis licet absolvere, et alia huiusmodi facere. Neque enim b. Benedictus monachorum praeceptor almificus huiuscemodi rei fuit interdictor. Sed saecularibus licet ex commissione episcoporum praedicare et confessiones audire. Ergo et religiosis; cum in nulla regula hoc sit prohibitum. Further, everything that is lawful to secular priests is lawful likewise to religious, with the exception of any points forbidden by their rule. In Arg. xvi, quaest. I Sunt tamen nonnulli, it is laid down “that it is right for monks to absolve and to perform similar functions. St. Benedict, the gentle guide of monks, has not forbidden such offices to be undertaken by religious.” Secular priests, when authorised by a bishop, may preach and hear confessions. Hence as there is no rule forbidding monks to perform these duties, they may preach and hear confessions in like manner. @@ -729,7 +729,7 @@

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(3.) It now remains for us to show that it is expedient for the salvation of souls that others, besides parish priests, should preach and hear confessions. Primo per hoc quod dominus dicit Matth. IX, 37: messis quidem multa: Glossa, turba populorum ad suscipiendum verbum et ferendum fructum apta; operarii autem pauci; Glossa: praedicatores ad congregandum electorum Ecclesiam. Rogate ergo dominum messis, ut mittat operarios in messem suam. Ex quo patet quod salubre est Ecclesiae per multos verbum Dei praedicari fidelibus, et maxime turba fidelium crescente. - Our first proof is taken from the words of our Lord (Matt. ix. 37), “The harvest indeed is great”—or as the Gloss explains, “There is a vast multitude capable of receiving the word and of bearing fruit”—“ but the labourers are few,” i.e. (according to the Gloss), “the preachers who shall gather together the church of the elect.” “Pray, therefore, the Lord of the harvest, that He send labourers into his harvest.” These words show that it is salutary for the Church that the word of God should be announced to the faithful by many preachers, with an ever increasing number of believers. + Our first proof is taken from the words of our Lord (Matt. ix. 37), “The harvest indeed is great”—or as the Gloss explains, “There is a vast multitude capable of receiving the word and of bearing fruit”—“but the labourers are few,” i.e. (according to the Gloss), “the preachers who shall gather together the church of the elect.” “Pray, therefore, the Lord of the harvest, that He send labourers into his harvest.” These words show that it is salutary for the Church that the word of God should be announced to the faithful by many preachers, with an ever increasing number of believers. Idem potest haberi per id quod dicitur Sap. VI, 26: multitudo sapientium (interlinearis, coetus praedicatorum) sanitas est orbis terrarum. Again, it is written in the Book of Wisdom (vi, 26), “In a multitude of counsellors, there is wisdom.” These words are interpreted by the interlinear commentary to signify “A multitude of preachers brings health to the whole world.” @@ -762,7 +762,7 @@

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5. The foregoing reflections naturally lead us to consider the expediency of a religious order being instituted for the express purpose of assisting parish priests in preaching and hearing confessions. Episcopal permission would, of course, be needed to authorise the brethren of such an order to undertake their duties. Primo per hoc quod omnis religio ad exemplum vitae apostolicae formata est: unde dicitur Act. IV, 32 super illud, et erant illis omnia communia: Glossa: communia, Graece coena, unde coenobitae, idest communiter viventes, coenobia, idest habitacula eorum. Haec autem fuit vita apostolica, ut relictis omnibus, per mundum discurrerent evangelizando et praedicando, ut patet Matth. X, 7-10 ubi regula quaedam eis inscribitur. Ergo ad praedicta potest aliqua religio convenientissime institui. - Every religious order is based on the model of the Apostolic life. We are told that the Apostles practised community of life: “all things were common to them “ (Acts iv). The Gloss says that “the word ‘common’ is, in Greek, rendered by caena, or common meal, whence come the words cenobites, i.e. dwellers in common, and cenobia, i.e. common dwelling places.” The Apostles practised this mode of life, in order that leaving all things, they might be at liberty to preach the Gospel throughout the world. For the same reason, they prescribed this common life to their successors. Hence a religious order is peculiarly well adapted to the office of preaching. + Every religious order is based on the model of the Apostolic life. We are told that the Apostles practised community of life: “all things were common to them “(Acts iv). The Gloss says that “the word ‘common’ is, in Greek, rendered by caena, or common meal, whence come the words cenobites, i.e. dwellers in common, and cenobia, i.e. common dwelling places.” The Apostles practised this mode of life, in order that leaving all things, they might be at liberty to preach the Gospel throughout the world. For the same reason, they prescribed this common life to their successors. Hence a religious order is peculiarly well adapted to the office of preaching. Item. Iac. I, 27: religio munda et immaculata apud Deum et patrem haec est, visitare pupillos et viduas in tribulatione eorum. Sed illa visitatio est maxime necessaria quae fit per eos qui saluti animarum intendunt. Ergo convenientissime religio institui potest ad visitandum homines qui consolatione indigent, ut per patientiam et consolationem Scripturarum spem habeant. St. James says, “Religion pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this, to visit the orphan and the widow in their tribulation.” The most necessary form of visiting those in affliction, is that which is practised by such as labour for the salvation of souls. A religious order may then with great advantage, be instituted with this object in view that its members may seek out such as are in trouble, and encourage them to have patience, and to hope in, the promises of Scripture. @@ -849,7 +849,7 @@

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Ad 19. The arguments brought as proofs that religious cannot, even with episcopal permission, preach or bear confessions, are easily answered. The proposition, that what a man gives away he does not still possess, does not hold good in things spiritual. These are communicated, not like physical things, by the transference of some dominion over them, but rather by an emanation of an effect from its cause. When one man communicates knowledge to another, he does not, on this account, deprive himself of this knowledge; for it remains in his power. In the same way, he that confers some power upon another, does not, by doing so, deprive himself of that power. A bishop does not, by conferring on a priest the power to consecrate the Body of the Lord, cease to be able himself to do so. St. Augustine, treating of the communication of spiritual things, says (I De Doctrina Christiana) “Everything that is not lessened by being imparted. is not, if it be possessed without being communicated, possessed as it ought to be possessed.” In like manner, when a bishop confers upon a priest the power of absolving, he does not himself lose that power, unless the power of a priest in his parish is considered similar to that of a soldier in his town. This idea is, of course, ridiculous; for priests are not masters, but servants. “Let a man so account of us as of the ministers of Christ,” St. Paul writes (1 Cor. iv. 1). Our Lord, also, said to His Apostles, “The Kings of the Gentiles lord it, over them: but you not so: but he that is the greater among you, let him become as the least: and he who is the leader, as he who serves” Luke xxii, 25). Ad illud quod postea obiicitur, quod episcopus quando committit curam parochiae sacerdoti ipse se exonerat, dicendum, quod falsum est; quia adhuc pertinet ad eum habere curam totius plebis quae est in sua diocesi, quia totius plebis animae videntur sibi esse commissae, ut habetur 10, quaest. 1, cap. quaecunque. Unde et apostolus de se dicebat II ad Cor. XI, 28: praeter illa quae extrinsecus sunt, instantia mea quotidiana, solicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum. Non tamen onus fit ei importabile, quia habet alios inferioris ordinis adiutores. Dato autem quod sit immunis a periculo per hoc quod curam sacerdoti committit, non tamen sequitur quod per hoc reddatur immunis a potestate quam in parochia habebat. Ministri enim Christi non solum possunt operari ad salutem plebis ad vitandum periculum sibi imminens, sed etiam ad augendum meritum, et magis fructificandum in populo Dei: sicut etiam Paulus multa supererogabat propter salutem electorum, quae sine periculo salutis suae dimittere poterat. - Ad 20. The statement that a bishop, by committing the care of a parish to a priest, relieves himself of all responsibility connected with it, is untrue. For, a bishop is still answerable for the care of all the souls in his diocese (Quaest. I, Cap. Quaecumque). Hence St. Paul, after speaking of all his labours, concludes by saying, “Besides those things that are without: my daily instance, the care of all the churches “ (2 Cor. xi. 28). His burden, however, is rendered supportable to a bishop, because he has assistants of an inferior rank. But, even granted that a bishop, by committing a parish to a priest, relieves himself of its responsibility, it would not, on that account, follow that he would abrogate his power in that parish. For, the ministers of Christ are able to labour for the salvation of the faithful, not only by freeing themselves from responsibility, but likewise by increasing their own merit, and producing greater fruit among souls. Thus St. Paul undertook much work for the salvation of the elect, which he might, without any danger to his salvation, have omitted. + Ad 20. The statement that a bishop, by committing the care of a parish to a priest, relieves himself of all responsibility connected with it, is untrue. For, a bishop is still answerable for the care of all the souls in his diocese (Quaest. I, Cap. Quaecumque). Hence St. Paul, after speaking of all his labours, concludes by saying, “Besides those things that are without: my daily instance, the care of all the churches “(2 Cor. xi. 28). His burden, however, is rendered supportable to a bishop, because he has assistants of an inferior rank. But, even granted that a bishop, by committing a parish to a priest, relieves himself of its responsibility, it would not, on that account, follow that he would abrogate his power in that parish. For, the ministers of Christ are able to labour for the salvation of the faithful, not only by freeing themselves from responsibility, but likewise by increasing their own merit, and producing greater fruit among souls. Thus St. Paul undertook much work for the salvation of the elect, which he might, without any danger to his salvation, have omitted. Ad illud quod postea obiicitur, scilicet quod sacerdos est sub episcopo, sicut episcopus sub archiepiscopo; dicendum, quod non est omnino simile. Constat enim quod archiepiscopus non habet immediatam iurisdictionem in illos qui sunt de dioecesi episcopi suffraganei sui, nisi propter negligentiam episcopi vel nisi causa ad eum deferretur; sed episcopus habet immediatam iurisdictionem in parochiam sacerdotis, cum possit quemlibet coram se citare et excommunicare, quod archiepiscopus non potest in subditis episcoporum, nisi ut dictum est. Cuius ratio est, quia potestas sacerdotis naturaliter et ex iure divino subditur potestati episcopi, cum sit imperfecta respectu illius, ut Dionysius probat; sed episcopus subditur archiepiscopo solum ex ordinatione Ecclesiae. Et ideo in quibus Ecclesia statuit episcopum archiepiscopo subiectum, in illis tantum subiectus est ei. Sacerdos autem qui ex iure divino episcopo subditur, in omnibus est ei subiectus; sicut et Papa habet immediatam iurisdictionem in omnes Christianos; quia Romana Ecclesia, nullis synodicis constitutis ceteris Ecclesiis praelata est, sed evangelica voce domini et salvatoris nostri primatum obtinuit, ut habetur in decretis dist. 21, cap. quamvis. Ad 21. The argument that a priest is subject to a bishop, just as, a bishop is under an archbishop, is not quite correct. For an archbishop has not immediate jurisdiction over an episcopal diocese, except in matters specially referred to him. Thus an archbishop cannot summon before him, or excommunicate, one who is the subject of a bishop. A bishop, on the other hand, has immediate jurisdiction over his parochial clergy; he can cite any of them to appear before him; and he has power to excommunicate them. The reason of this distinction is that the power of a priest is imperfect compared to that of a bishop; priests are by divine right subject to bishops, as Dionysius proves. The subjection of a bishop to an archbishop depends only on an ecclesiastical ordinance and is limited by it. But a priest, being by divine right subject to a bishop, is subject to him in all things. The jurisdiction of a bishop over his priests resembles in kind that of the Sovereign Pontiff over all Christendom. For the Roman Church has not been given supremacy over other churches by the decrees of any synod, but by the words of our Lord and Saviour Himself (In Decretis, Distinct. XXI, Cap. Quamvis). @@ -876,7 +876,7 @@

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Ad 28. The words quoted from I, quaest. de Doctrina were written by Dionysius of lay monks, i.e., of monks who are neither bishops, priests nor deacons, But, even if they be applied to all religious, the Pope, by sending monks to preach, would not be disturbing the order of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. For, as we have said before, he who is of an inferior rank can exercise an office belonging to a higher grade, thus imitating the action of the celestial hierarchy. Furthermore, in the ecclesiastical hierarchy those of a lower order can be promoted to a higher rank. This cannot take place in the heavenly hierarchy. Hence Pope Innocent III, before a General council, sent some Cistercian monks to preach at Toulouse. Ad illud quod ultimo obiicitur, quod religiosi non possunt petere licentiam praedicandi, quia hoc est ambitionis; dicendum, quod falsum est: quia praedicationis officium et laudabiliter appeti potest ex caritate, exemplo Isaiae, qui se ad hoc sponte obtulit, Isa. VI, 8: ecce ego, mitte me: et laudabiliter potest vitari ex humilitate, exemplo Ieremiae, qui dixit: a, a, a, domine Deus, nescio loqui, quia puer ego sum: Ier. I, 6, ut patet per Glossam Gregorii ibidem. Et similis sententia habetur 8, quaest. 1, cap. in scriptis. Sciendum etiam, quod ecclesiastica officia duo habent adiuncta: scilicet opus, et dignitatem vel honorem: et ratione honoris laudabiliter recusantur et ratione operis laudabiliter possunt quaeri. I Tim. III, 1: qui episcopatum desiderat, bonum opus desiderat. Unde Augustinus exponere voluit quid sit episcopatus, secundum scilicet quod desiderari potest, quia nomen est operis, non honoris: ut habetur 8, quaest. 1, qui episcopatum. Et hoc idem habetur in Glossa super eodem verbo. Et ideo si opus separatur a dignitate, laudabiliter et sine aliquo ambitionis periculo potest desiderari. Et ideo non est ambitionis, si religiosus petat a sacerdote vel episcopo licentiam praedicandi, sed est signum dilectionis Dei et proximi. - Ad 29. The last objection, brought against religious who preach, is that it is ambition on their part to seek permission to exercise this office. This is untrue, for a desire to preach inspired by charity is on the contrary praiseworthy. Isaiah (vi. 8) offered himself to the Lord, saying: “Lo: here I am: send me.” This function may likewise be meritoriously declined out of humility. Thus Jeremiah said (i. 6): “Ah, ah, ah, Lord God, I cannot speak, for I am a child.” This is evident from the Gloss of St. Gregory. The same view is found in VIII, quaest. I, cap. In scripturis. We must remember that ecclesiastical offices are accompanied both by dignity and by labour. Therefore, they may, on account of their dignity, be declined; and they may be desired, for the sake of the work. “ If a man desire the office of bishop, he desires a good thing,” says St. Paul (1 Tim. iii, 1). On these words St. Augustine says (XIX De civitate Dei), “The Apostle desired to explain what is meant by the episcopate and how far it may be desired, for the name implies labour not glory “ (cf. VIII quaest. I, qui episcopatum, also the Gloss on the same text). Hence if the labours of the episcopate be distinguished from its attendant dignity, it may laudably and without danger of ambition be desired. In like manner, a religious who seeks from a parish priest or a bishop permission to preach shows not that he is inspired by ambition, but that he is filled with the love of God and of his neighbour. + Ad 29. The last objection, brought against religious who preach, is that it is ambition on their part to seek permission to exercise this office. This is untrue, for a desire to preach inspired by charity is on the contrary praiseworthy. Isaiah (vi. 8) offered himself to the Lord, saying: “Lo: here I am: send me.” This function may likewise be meritoriously declined out of humility. Thus Jeremiah said (i. 6): “Ah, ah, ah, Lord God, I cannot speak, for I am a child.” This is evident from the Gloss of St. Gregory. The same view is found in VIII, quaest. I, cap. In scripturis. We must remember that ecclesiastical offices are accompanied both by dignity and by labour. Therefore, they may, on account of their dignity, be declined; and they may be desired, for the sake of the work. “If a man desire the office of bishop, he desires a good thing,” says St. Paul (1 Tim. iii, 1). On these words St. Augustine says (XIX De civitate Dei), “The Apostle desired to explain what is meant by the episcopate and how far it may be desired, for the name implies labour not glory “(cf. VIII quaest. I, qui episcopatum, also the Gloss on the same text). Hence if the labours of the episcopate be distinguished from its attendant dignity, it may laudably and without danger of ambition be desired. In like manner, a religious who seeks from a parish priest or a bishop permission to preach shows not that he is inspired by ambition, but that he is filled with the love of God and of his neighbour.
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11. Further, if religious be dispensed from work, the dispensation ought to be granted in order to give them opportunity for sacred psalmody, for prayer, for preaching, and for reading. But, it is not for these reasons that religious are exempted from labour. Therefore, they are bound to work. St. Augustine, in his book De opere monachorum, proves this obligation in the following words: “How do they employ themselves who will not labour with their hands? Gladly would I know what they do? They say that they devote themselves to psalmody, to prayer, to reading and to the Word of God.” The author then proceeds to examine each of these excuses. Speaking of prayer, he says: “One prayer from the lips of an obedient man will be heard more speedily than ten made by one that is scornful.” He, thus insinuates that he who will not work with his hands is proud and unworthy of being listened to by God. Next, speaking of those who say that instead of labouring they are singing sacred canticles, he says: “It is easy to chant and to work at the same time.” He then asks, “What is to prevent a servant of God, while employed in labour, from meditating on the law of the ‘Lord, and singing to the name of the Most High?” Thirdly, referring to reading, he says: “Do not they who say that they devote their time to reading find in the Scriptures the Apostolic precept to work? How great is their perversity! These men wish to read, but will not heed what is written. They desire to prolong the time for reading what is virtuous, but they will not accomplish the good works of which they read. Who does not know that he makes the most profit by his reading who is the swiftest to put it into practice?” Fourthly, the saint remarks about preaching: “Although one monk may have to preach, and therefore may not have time for work, all the brethren in the monastery cannot preach. If then they cannot all preach, why, on the pretext of preaching, should they all leave their work? But, even supposing that they can all preach, they ought to do so in turn, both in order that some may be left to do the necessary work, and because one speaker suffices to many listeners.”
Sciendum vero est, quod in ista etiam quaestione viam veritatis relinquentes, dum ab uno errore recedunt, in contrarium dilabuntur. Fuit enim quorundam monachorum error antiquitus qui dicebant, religiosos manibus operari sine perfectionis suae detrimento non posse: quia qui manibus operatur, non totam solicitudinem suam in Deum iactat, et ita non implet illud evangelicum: nolite solliciti esse animae vestrae quid manducetis, et corpori vestro quid induamini, Matth. VI, 25. Unde et cogebantur negare apostolum manibus operasse, et dicere, hoc quod apostolus dicit II Thess. III, 10: qui non vult operari, non manducet, de opere spirituali intelligendum fore, non de opere corporali, ne praeceptum apostoli praecepto Evangelii contrarium inveniatur. Horum ergo errorem utpote sacrae Scripturae manifeste contrarium Augustinus reprobat in Lib. de operibus monachorum: quia contra tales hunc librum scripsit, ut patet in Lib. Retractationum. Ex quo quidam perversi sensus homines contrarii erroris occasionem assumunt, ut dicant religiosos in statu damnationis esse qui manibus non laborant, in hoc Pharaoni amicos et unanimes se ostendentes, ut patet per Glossam Exod. V, 4, super illud: quare Moyses et Aaron solicitatis populum etc., Glossa: hodie quoque si Moyses et Aaron, idest propheticus et sacerdotalis sermo, animam solicitet ad servitium Dei exire de saeculo, renuntiare omnibus quae possidet, attendere legi et verbo Dei; continuo audies unanimes et amicos Pharaonis dicentes: videte quomodo seducuntur homines et pervertuntur adolescentes, ne laborent, ne militent, ne agant aliquid quod prosit. Relictis rebus necessariis ineptias sectantur et otium. Quid est servire Deo? Laborare nolunt et otii occasiones quaerunt. Haec erant tunc verba Pharaonis; haec et nunc amici eius loquuntur. - Body. It is noticeable that on this point those who have once forsaken the beaten track of truth have, in their efforts to avoid one error, fallen into a contrary mistake. There was once among certain monks an erroneous idea that manual labour was detrimental to religious perfection, because it hindered religious from casting all their care upon God and thus from fulfilling our Lord’s behest: “Be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on” (Matt. vi. 25). But they who hold this opinion must, for the sake of consistency, deny that the Apostles laboured with their hands. They must interpret the words of St. Paul, “ if any man will not work, neither shall he eat,” as referring not to physical, but to spiritual labours. Otherwise the Apostolic precept would be opposed to the evangelical command. St. Augustine in his book De opere monachorum, which was written to confute this error (as he tells us in his book of Retractations), clearly proves that it is contrary to the teaching of Holy Scripture. On the strength of this verdict, other captious men have disseminated an error of a precisely contrary nature, teaching that religious are, unless engaged in manual labour, living in a state of damnation. The Gloss terms the upholders of this opinion friends and sup porters of Pharaoh, who said: “Why do you, Moses and Aaron, draw off the people from their works?” (Exod. v. 4). It makes the following commentary on the text: “If, today Moses and Aaron, by whom is signified the word of a prophet or a preacher, should stir up men’s hearts to leave the world and to renounce all that they possess in order to devote themselves to the service of God, and to the study of His law and word, the friends of Pharaoh would immediately exclaim: “See how men are led away, and youths persuaded to forsake work and military service and everything useful, in order to spend their time in idleness and folly. For what is their service to God? A pretext for idleness? Such were the words of Pharaoh, and thus do his friends still speak.” + Body. It is noticeable that on this point those who have once forsaken the beaten track of truth have, in their efforts to avoid one error, fallen into a contrary mistake. There was once among certain monks an erroneous idea that manual labour was detrimental to religious perfection, because it hindered religious from casting all their care upon God and thus from fulfilling our Lord’s behest: “Be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on” (Matt. vi. 25). But they who hold this opinion must, for the sake of consistency, deny that the Apostles laboured with their hands. They must interpret the words of St. Paul, “if any man will not work, neither shall he eat,” as referring not to physical, but to spiritual labours. Otherwise the Apostolic precept would be opposed to the evangelical command. St. Augustine in his book De opere monachorum, which was written to confute this error (as he tells us in his book of Retractations), clearly proves that it is contrary to the teaching of Holy Scripture. On the strength of this verdict, other captious men have disseminated an error of a precisely contrary nature, teaching that religious are, unless engaged in manual labour, living in a state of damnation. The Gloss terms the upholders of this opinion friends and sup porters of Pharaoh, who said: “Why do you, Moses and Aaron, draw off the people from their works?” (Exod. v. 4). It makes the following commentary on the text: “If, today Moses and Aaron, by whom is signified the word of a prophet or a preacher, should stir up men’s hearts to leave the world and to renounce all that they possess in order to devote themselves to the service of God, and to the study of His law and word, the friends of Pharaoh would immediately exclaim: “See how men are led away, and youths persuaded to forsake work and military service and everything useful, in order to spend their time in idleness and folly. For what is their service to God? A pretext for idleness? Such were the words of Pharaoh, and thus do his friends still speak.”
Ut ergo ab istorum infestatione servos Dei defendamus, ostendamus, non omnes religiosos, nisi forte in casu, ad manibus laborandum non tantum non teneri, sed etiam manibus non laborantes in statu salutis esse. In order to defend the servants of God from persecution of this nature, we shall now prove that religious are not, except perhaps occasionally, bound to manual labour; moreover, those who do not work with their hands are in a state of salvation. @@ -970,7 +970,7 @@

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St. Augustine observes, again, in his book De opere monachorum that St. Paul worked with his hands in those places (of which one was Corinth) in which he was accustomed to preach to the Jews only on the Sabbath day. But when he was at Athens and preached daily, he lived not by his labour, but by the alms brought to him by the brethren from Macedonia. Hence we see that the function of preaching is not to be set aside for the sake of manual labour. Those men, therefore, who whether by commission from a superior or of their own right, are able to preach daily or otherwise to minister to souls, ought to abstain from manual work.
Item. Opera misericordiae praeferuntur corporalibus exercitiis: I Tim. IV, 8: corporalis quidem exercitatio ad modicum utilis est; pietas autem ad omnia valet. Sed opera pietatis sunt intermittenda, ut vacetur praedicationi. Act. VI, 2: non est aequum nos relinquere verbum Dei, et ministrare mensis. Et Luc. IX, 60: sine ut mortui sepeliant mortuos suos; tu autem vade, et annuntia verbum Dei: Glossa: dominus docet minora bona pro utilitate maiorum esse praetermittenda. Maius enim est animas mortuorum praedicando suscitare quam corpus mortuum in terra abscondere. Ergo et illi qui licite praedicare possunt qualitercumque, debent propter praedicationem laborem manuum intermittere. - Further, works of mercy are preferable to physical labour. St. Paul says, (1 Tim. iv. 8), “ For bodily exercise is profitable to little; but godliness is profitable to all things.” But, even works of fraternal charity must give place to the exercise of preaching. “It is not fit that we should leave the word of God to serve at tables” (Acts vi. 2). “Leave the dead to bury their dead, but you go and preach the Kingdom of God” (Luke ix. 60). On this the Gloss observes: “The Lord teaches us to forego lesser advantages for the sake greater ones. It is more profitable to raise souls, by preaching, from the death of sin than to bury dead bodies in the earth.” Hence manual labour may lawfully be neglected for the sake of preaching. + Further, works of mercy are preferable to physical labour. St. Paul says, (1 Tim. iv. 8), “For bodily exercise is profitable to little; but godliness is profitable to all things.” But, even works of fraternal charity must give place to the exercise of preaching. “It is not fit that we should leave the word of God to serve at tables” (Acts vi. 2). “Leave the dead to bury their dead, but you go and preach the Kingdom of God” (Luke ix. 60). On this the Gloss observes: “The Lord teaches us to forego lesser advantages for the sake greater ones. It is more profitable to raise souls, by preaching, from the death of sin than to bury dead bodies in the earth.” Hence manual labour may lawfully be neglected for the sake of preaching.
Item. Non est possibile studio sacrae Scripturae continuo insistere, et de labore manuum victum quaerere, sed sicut Gregorius in pastorali dicit, exponens illud quod legitur Exod. XXV, 15: vectes semper erunt in circulis etc., nimirum inquit necesse est ut qui ad officium sacrae praedicationis excubant, a sacrae lectionis studio non recedant: ut scilicet semper sint parati ad praedicandum; etsi non semper praedicent, ut patet per ea quae ibi subduntur. Ergo illi qui ad praedicandum deputati sunt sive ex propria auctoritate, sicut praelati, sive ex praelatorum commissione, debent a labore manuum cessare, ut studio vacent. It is impossible, at the same time, both to gain a livelihood by work and to carry on a systematic study of Holy Scripture. St. Gregory, expounding Exod. xxv., “The bars shall be always in the rings,” says: “It is above all necessary that they who are destined for preaching should be unremitting in their studies, so that although they are not always preaching, they may always be prepared to preach.” Hence those whose duty it is to preach, whether by their own authority, as is the case with bishops, or by the commission of prelates, ought to set aside manual labour for the sake of study. @@ -988,7 +988,7 @@

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Ad 1. The first argument brought against us is that manual labour is an Apostolic precept. To this objection we reply that it is a precept not of positive right, but of the natural law. This is clear from the words of St. Paul (2 Thes. iii. 6), “Withdraw yourselves from every brother living disorderly,” which the Gloss interprets to mean, “who lives not according to the law of nature.” The Apostle is speaking of such as will not work. Now the very constitution of our bodies teaches us that nature intends us to labour. We are not provided with raiment, as other animals are furnished with hides. Neither has nature given us weapons, like the horns which she has bestowed on cattle; nor the claws wherewith lions defend themselves. Nor is any food, save milk, supplied naturally to us, as Avicenna remarks. In lieu of the gifts bestowed upon other animals, man is endowed with reason, which teaches him to supply his needs, and with hands wherewith he can carry out the dictates of reason, as Aristotle says (XIV De animal.). As the precepts of the natural law regard all men without distinction, the law of manual labour does not apply more to religious than to others. Nevertheless, it is not true that all men ere bound to work with their hands. There are certain laws of nature which, in their observance, are of profit to none save to the one who obeys them. Such is the law obliging man to eat. These laws must be obeyed by every individual man. Other natural laws, e.g. that of reproduction, regard not only the man who obeys them, but are advantageous to the whole human race. It is not necessary that all these laws should be obeyed by every individual; for no single man is competent to perform all the activities which are needed for the continuation of the human race. One individual would not suffice for the different works of reproduction, of invention, of architecture, of agriculture, or for the other functions which must be exercised for the continuance of the human race. To supply the needs common to all mankind one individual must assist another, just as in the body one limb is subserved by another. It is in allusion to this mutual service which men are bound to render to each other that St. Paul says: “We are each members of one another” (Rom. ‘xii. 5). The differences existing among men, and enabling them to devote themselves to different occupations, are to be attributed primarily to Divine Providence, and secondarily to natural causes, whereby certain men are disposed to the performance of certain functions in preference to others.
Sic ergo patet quod in talibus nullus obligatur ex praecepto, nisi quando necessitas incumbit, et per alium sibi non providetur; sicut si necessitas incumberet homini ut domo vel aliquo huiusmodi uteretur, et nullus alius esset qui ei praepararet, ipsemet sibi praeparare habitaculum teneretur; alias sibi manus iniiceret. Similiter dico, quod ad manibus laborandum nullus tenetur nisi quando necessitas incumbit utendi his quae labore manuum quaeruntur, et ea ab aliis aliunde habere non potest sine peccato. Illud enim dicimur posse quod licite possumus. Et hoc patet per illud quod dicitur I Cor. IV, 12. Laboramus operantes manibus nostris: Glossa: quia nemo dat nobis. Unde etiam apostolus nunquam laborem manuum praecepit nisi illis qui a labore manuum abstinentes, causa victus quaerendi in peccata alia incidebant, ut supra probatum est. Et sic ex verbis apostoli non potest plus haberi nisi quod quilibet homo vel religiosus vel saecularis tenetur manibus laborare potius quam se dimittat mori, vel victum aliquo modo illicito quaerat. Et hoc concedimus. - Hence we see that no man is bound to any particular work, unless necessity obliges him to it, and unless no one else will accomplish it for him. For example, if a man be constrained by necessity to dwell in a house which no one will build for him, he must build it for himself. With regard, therefore, to manual labour, I maintain that it is not incumbent upon anyone unless he be in want of something which must be produced by such labour, and which he cannot, without sin, procure from any other man. For we are said to be able to do anything when we can lawfully do it. This appears from the words of St. Paul (1 Cor. iv. 12). “We labour, working with our own hands,” “because “ (comments the Gloss) “no one will supply our necessities.” Hence the Apostle does not enjoin manual labour as a precept on any, save on those who choose to gain their living by sin, rather than by work. Nor can it be proved that anyone, be he layman or religious, is bound to manual labour, except to save himself from death by starvation, or to avoid a sinful mode of gaining a livelihood. + Hence we see that no man is bound to any particular work, unless necessity obliges him to it, and unless no one else will accomplish it for him. For example, if a man be constrained by necessity to dwell in a house which no one will build for him, he must build it for himself. With regard, therefore, to manual labour, I maintain that it is not incumbent upon anyone unless he be in want of something which must be produced by such labour, and which he cannot, without sin, procure from any other man. For we are said to be able to do anything when we can lawfully do it. This appears from the words of St. Paul (1 Cor. iv. 12). “We labour, working with our own hands,” “because “(comments the Gloss) “no one will supply our necessities.” Hence the Apostle does not enjoin manual labour as a precept on any, save on those who choose to gain their living by sin, rather than by work. Nor can it be proved that anyone, be he layman or religious, is bound to manual labour, except to save himself from death by starvation, or to avoid a sinful mode of gaining a livelihood.
Ad illud quod secundo, obiicitur, dicendum, quod ex prima parte illius Glossae non potest plus haberi nisi quod illud verbum apostoli: qui non vult operari, non manducet, intelligitur de opere corporali contra quosdam monachos, qui dicebant illud verbum apostoli intelligendum esse de opere spirituali tantum, volentes quod servis Dei non liceret manibus operari. Et hunc intellectum Glossa aufert, et Augustinus reprobat in Lib. de operibus Monach. unde Glossa sumitur. Habito ergo quod textus sic sit intelligendus, si quis non vult corporaliter operari, non manducet; non sequitur quod quilibet qui manducare vult, teneatur manibus laborare. Si enim de omnibus hoc diceretur, esset contrarium ei quod paulo ante praemiserat: nocte ac die operantes (...) non quasi non habuerimus potestatem et cetera. Habebat ergo potestatem apostolus manducandi sine labore manuum. Non ergo universaliter intelligendum est, si quis non vult operari, non manducet. Sed de quibus loquatur, patet manifeste per id quod subditur: audivimus enim quosdam inter vos ambulantes inquiete, nihil operantes, sed curiose agentes: Glossa: qui foeda cura necessaria sibi provident. His ergo, qui eiusmodi sunt, denuntiamus (...) ut cum silentio operantes panem suum manducent. Cum enim nullo modo debeant foeda cura, idest illicito negotio, victum quaerere, in idem redit eos non operari et non manducare. Quod autem subiungitur in Glossa, vult servos Dei corporaliter operari, non simpliciter proponitur, sed cum conditione alterius mali vitandi, scilicet involuntariae et coactae mendicationis: quia sequitur: ut non compellantur egestate necessaria petere. Potius enim esset manibus laborandum quam ad tantam miseriam deveniendum, quod contra suum propositum et voluntatem aliquis mendicare cogeretur. Nec tamen sequitur quod paupertatem voluntariam assumentes, et ex humilitate mendicare volentes, laborare manibus teneantur. Ad 2. To the second objection, which is based on the commentary of the Gloss on the words, “If any man will not work, neither let him eat,” we answer that this saying must be understood as referring to physical, as distinguished from spiritual work. It was directed against those who interpreted this passage as signifying spiritual labours only, and as forbidding the servants of God to work. The Gloss corrects this interpretation. St. Augustine likewise finds fault with it, in his book De opere monachorum. But even if the verse, “If anyone will not work neither let him eat” is understood as referring to manual labour, it does not prove that everyone who desires to eat, is bound to work with his hands. Were such a precept of labour universally imposed, it would contradict the words of St. Paul, “we worked day and night; not as if we had not power,” etc. As the Apostle had power to eat without working, the words: “If anyone will not work, neither let him eat” cannot be understood as implying an obligation to work imposed on all mankind. The class of men to whom St. Paul refers becomes quite evident from some other words of his in the same chapter (2 Thes. iii.): “For we have heard there are some among you who walk disorderly, not working at all, but curiously meddling” or, as the Gloss says, “providing themselves with the necessities of life by illicit means.” St. Paul continues, “Such people we instruct and urge to work with silence and eat their own bread.” For one accustomed to gain his living in an unlawful manner ought not to eat if he will not work. The words of the Gloss which follow: “that they may not be compelled by want to beg,” show that labour is not to be imposed upon the servants of God as a necessity, but that it is proposed to them as means of avoiding the evil of compulsory mendicancy. For, it is better for a man to work with his hands than to be reduced, against his will, to beggary. Nor does, it follow that they who profess poverty and who, out of humility, are content to beg, are bound to work with their hands. @@ -1009,7 +1009,7 @@

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Ad 7. We reply to the seventh objection that St. Paul gives to bishops the example of manual labour in those cases in which he himself had recourse to it, e.g., when such labour would not be an obstacle to the performance of their ecclesiastical duties, or when it would cause scandal to recent converts were they to be asked for material assistance.
Ad illud quod octavo obiicitur, dicendum, quod labor manualis, ut per auctoritatem Hieronymi inductam patet, non solum assumitur ad victum quaerendum, sed ad reprimendum vanas cogitationes, quae nascuntur ex otio et carnis corruptione. Otium autem efficaciter removetur non solum per opera manualia, sed etiam per exercitia spiritualia, quibus etiam carnis concupiscentia frenatur: unde dicit Hieronymus in eadem epistola: ama scientiam Scripturarum, et carnis vitia non amabis. Unde quantum pertinet ad corpus domandum et otium tollendum, labor manualis non est in praecepto, dummodo homo per alia spiritualia exercitia otium evitet, et corpus castiget aliis poenitentiae operibus; sicut ieiuniis, vigiliis et huiusmodi, inter quae connumerat apostolus laborem manuum; II Cor. VI, 5: in laboribus, in vigiliis, in ieiuniis; Glossa: in laboribus operum, quia manibus suis operabatur. - Ad 8. Our answer to the eighth objection, is that manual labour, according to the authority of St. Jerome, is performed not only to earn a livelihood, but, likewise to repress dangerous thoughts arising from idleness and self-indulgence. But sloth and the desires of the flesh are overcome not only by bodily toil, but likewise by spiritual exercises. Hence St. Jerome writes: “Love the knowledge of the Scripture, and you will not love the vices of the flesh.” There is no precept enjoining manual labour, if idleness can be avoided by means of spiritual exercises, and if the body is subdued by means of other austerities such as watching, fasting and the like, among which penitential practices St. Paul mentions labour, saying “ in labours, in watching; in fasting” (2 Cor. vi.). The Gloss adds, “in manual labour,” the reason being, “because the Apostle worked with his hands.” + Ad 8. Our answer to the eighth objection, is that manual labour, according to the authority of St. Jerome, is performed not only to earn a livelihood, but, likewise to repress dangerous thoughts arising from idleness and self-indulgence. But sloth and the desires of the flesh are overcome not only by bodily toil, but likewise by spiritual exercises. Hence St. Jerome writes: “Love the knowledge of the Scripture, and you will not love the vices of the flesh.” There is no precept enjoining manual labour, if idleness can be avoided by means of spiritual exercises, and if the body is subdued by means of other austerities such as watching, fasting and the like, among which penitential practices St. Paul mentions labour, saying “in labours, in watching; in fasting” (2 Cor. vi.). The Gloss adds, “in manual labour,” the reason being, “because the Apostle worked with his hands.”
Ad illud quod nono obiicitur, dicendum, quod laborare manibus quandoque est melius quam non laborare et quandoque e converso. Quando enim aliquis per laborem manuum non retrahitur ab aliquo utiliori opere, melius est manibus laborare, ut exinde possit sibi sufficere et aliis providere; et praecipue quando esset in scandalum infirmorum fidelium, vel de novo conversorum ad fidem, si aliquis a labore manuum abstinens de sumptibus fidelium vivere vellet: in quo casu apostolus manibus laborabat, ut patet per Glossam I ad Cor. IX: et sic etiam loquitur Glossa inducta de actibus. Quando autem per laborem manuum aliquis ab utiliori opere impeditur, tunc melius est ab opere manuum abstinere, ut patet per Glossam Luc. IX, 60 super illud, dimitte mortuos sepeliret etc., quae supra inducta fuit: et sicut patet per exemplum apostoli, qui ab opere cessabat, quando praedicandi opportunitatem habebat. Facilius autem impedirentur moderni praedicatores a praedicatione per laborem manuum quam apostoli, qui ex inspiratione scientiam praedicandi habebant; cum oporteat praedicatores moderni temporis ex continuo studio ad praedicandum semper paratos esse, ut patet per auctoritatem Gregorii supra inductam. Ad 9. We reply to the ninth objection that at times it is advisable to work with the hands, and at other times it is better not to work in this manner. When manual labour does not call a man away from some more useful occupation, it is very praiseworthy, as a means both of self-support, and of charity to those in need. It is especially to be counselled, in cases wherein those weak in faith or but recently converted would be scandalised if preachers, instead of earning their own livelihood, were to live on the alms of the faithful. It was on such occasions (as the Gloss remarks) that St. Paul had recourse to manual labour (1 Cor. ix.). When, however, such labour hinders a man from engaging in more useful occupation, it is better to set it aside. This lesson is given us by the commentary of the Gloss on the words, “Leave the dead to bury their dead” (Luke ix), and also by the example of St. Paul, who ceased to work when he had an opportunity of preaching. Manual labour is naturally a greater hindrance to modern preachers than to those of the Apostolic age. For the Apostles were taught by the immediate inspiration of the Holy Spirit, whereas in our time preachers must prepare themselves for their office by constant study, as is evidenced by St. Gregory in the words already given. @@ -1049,7 +1049,7 @@

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4. St. Paul gives to the Corinthians the following rule concerning almsgiving: “If eagerness is there, it is acceptable according to what a man has, not according to what he does no have. I do no mean that others should be eased, and you burdened” (2 Cor. viii. 12). The Gloss interprets this text to mean that a man must keep for himself the necessities of life, and that if he bring on himself poverty, he is giving beyond his means. Hence those who abandon all their possessions are giving alms inordinately, and in a manner contrary to the Apostolic rule.
Item. I Thess. V, 12, super illud, rogamus autem vos, fratres, ut noveritis eos, dicit Glossa: sicut divitiae negligentiam pariunt salutis, ita egestas, dum saturari quaerit, a iustitia declinat. Sed illi qui relictis omnibus pauperem religionem intrant, se egestati subiiciunt. Ergo ponunt se in periculo declinandi a iustitia; quod videtur reprehensibile. - 5. The Gloss has the following comment on the words of St. Paul (1 Thess. v. 12), “We beseech you brethren to respect” etc.: “ Riches beget carelessness about salvation. Penury also causes men to forsake justice in their efforts to acquire wealth.” Now they who give up all that they possess in order to become religious reduce themselves to excessive poverty. Thus they lay themselves open to a temptation to depart from justice. + 5. The Gloss has the following comment on the words of St. Paul (1 Thess. v. 12), “We beseech you brethren to respect” etc.: “Riches beget carelessness about salvation. Penury also causes men to forsake justice in their efforts to acquire wealth.” Now they who give up all that they possess in order to become religious reduce themselves to excessive poverty. Thus they lay themselves open to a temptation to depart from justice.
Item. I ad Tim. VI, 8, super illud, habentes alimenta, et quibus tegamur, dicit Glossa: etsi nihil intulerimus vel ablaturi sumus, non tamen omnino abiicienda sunt haec temporalia. Sed ille qui omnibus dimissis religionem intrat quae temporalibus possessionibus caret, omnia temporalia abiicit. Ergo inordinate agit. 6. Again on the words of the same Apostle, “but having food and wherewith to be covered” (1 Tim. vi. 8), the Gloss says: “Although we have brought nothing into the world, and shall take nothing out of it, temporal possessions are not to be entirely rejected.” Therefore, he who casts aside all material wealth in order to go into religion acts inordinately. @@ -1070,7 +1070,7 @@

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11. God has given us this commandment (Exod. xx. 13), “You shall not kill,” i.e., says the Gloss, “by depriving another of the means of life which you dost owe him.” Now as temporal possessions are “the means of life,” and as we “owe” the means of subsistence, in the first place, to ourselves, he who deprives himself of all material possessions sins against the commandment, “You shall not kill,” by depriving himself of the means of living.
Item. Thren. IV, 9: melius fuit occisis gladio quam interfectis fame. Ergo se exponere fami est peius quam se exponere gladio. Sed hoc non licet, dum homo habet quid faciat sine peccato, ut Augustinus dicit. Ergo multo minus licet se fami exponere: quod facere videntur qui sua relinquunt nihil sibi reservantes. - 12. It was better with those who were slain by the sword, than with those who died with hunger “ (Lam. iv. 9). Hence it is more iniquitous to expose ourselves to death by starvation than to destruction by violence. “It is not lawful for a man to act thus when he can, without sin, act otherwise,” says St. Augustine. Much less then is it, permitted to us to expose ourselves through starvation, by parting with all that we possess, and retaining nothing. + 12. It was better with those who were slain by the sword, than with those who died with hunger “(Lam. iv. 9). Hence it is more iniquitous to expose ourselves to death by starvation than to destruction by violence. “It is not lawful for a man to act thus when he can, without sin, act otherwise,” says St. Augustine. Much less then is it, permitted to us to expose ourselves through starvation, by parting with all that we possess, and retaining nothing.
Item. Plus homo tenetur sibi quam alii. Sed peccaret aliquis qui alteri totum subtraheret unde vitam sustentare deberet, et quodammodo ipsum occideret: Eccli. XXXIII: panis egentium vita hominis est: qui defraudat illum, homo sanguinis est. Ergo peccat, se ipsum quodammodo occidens, qui omnia sua relinquit ut religionem intret, in qua communes possessiones non sunt unde sustententur. 13. Again, a man is more bound to preserve his own life, than to care for another. Now it would be sinful, to deprive another man of all means of subsistence, and thus to cause him to perish. “The bread of the needy is the life of the poor: he who defrauds them of it is a man of blood” (Eccles. xxxiv. 25). Therefore, he who gives away his all and retires into a religious order which has no common property sins by suicide. @@ -1133,7 +1133,7 @@

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1. In order to prove that evangelical poverty requires, not only habitual, but likewise actual poverty, we will remind our readers of the words: “If you would be perfect, go, sell all” etc. (Matt xix. 21). Now he who sells all that he has and distributes it to the poor practises not merely habitual, but likewise actual poverty. Hence actual poverty is needed for evangelical perfection. Again, evangelical perfection consists in the imitation of Christ, who was poor not only in desire, but in fact. The Gloss, on the words, “Go to the sea” (Matt. xvii.) says, “So great was the poverty of the Lord that he had not wherewith to pay the tribute money.” Again, on the words, “the foxes have holes” etc. (Luke ix.), the Gloss says: “our Lord meant to say that His poverty was so extreme that He had no shelter, and no roof to call His own.” We might adduce many other proofs that actual poverty pertains to evangelical perfection.
Item. Evangelica perfectio maxime in apostolis claruit. Sed ipsi actualem paupertatem habuerunt, sua omnia relinquentes; unde Petrus dixit, Matth. XIX, 27: ecce nos reliquimus omnia etc.: et Hieronymus dicit ad Edibiam: si vis esse perfecta, et in primo stare fastigio dignitatis, fac quod fecerunt apostoli: vende omnia quae habes, et da pauperibus, et nudam solamque crucem virtute nuda sequaris et sola. Ergo actualis paupertas ad evangelicam perfectionem pertinet. - The Apostles were mirrors of evangelical perfection. They practised actual poverty, renouncing all that they possessed. “Behold” (said St. Peter) “we have left all things” (Matt. xix. 27). Hence St. Jerome writes to Hebidia: “ Would you be perfect and attain to the highest dignity? Do as the Apostles did. Sell all that you have and give to the poor, and follow our Saviour. Alone, and stripped of all things, follow only the Cross in its bare poverty.” Hence actual poverty forms part of evangelical perfection. + The Apostles were mirrors of evangelical perfection. They practised actual poverty, renouncing all that they possessed. “Behold” (said St. Peter) “we have left all things” (Matt. xix. 27). Hence St. Jerome writes to Hebidia: “Would you be perfect and attain to the highest dignity? Do as the Apostles did. Sell all that you have and give to the poor, and follow our Saviour. Alone, and stripped of all things, follow only the Cross in its bare poverty.” Hence actual poverty forms part of evangelical perfection.
Item. Marc. X, 23, super illud, quam difficile qui pecunias habent etc., Glossa: aliud est pecuniam habere, aliud amare. Multi habent et non amant, multi non habent et amant, item alii habent et amant, alii vero nec habere nec amare se gaudent: qui tutiores sunt, qui cum apostolo dicere possunt: mihi mundus crucifixus est, et ego mundo. Ergo actualis paupertas et habitualis simul praeferenda est habituali paupertati. Item. Idem potest haberi Matth. XIX, 23, per Glossam super illud, dives difficile intrabit in regnum caelorum. Glossa: de omnibus tutius est nec habere nec amare divitias. The Gloss on the words “How hard is for those who have riches” etc. (Mark x. 23), has the following comment: “It is one thing to have money, another to love it. Many possess it without loving it; many love it without possessing it.” Thus, while some men own wealth and love it; others congratulate themselves on neither owning nor loving it, for this is the safer course. Such men can say with the Apostle, “the world is crucified to me, and I to the world.” Hence it is evident that habitual poverty, in conjunction with actual poverty, is preferable to habitual poverty alone. This same remark may be made with reference to the words in Matt. xix. 23, “How hard it is for a rich man enter the Kingdom of Heaven.” The Gloss here observes, “It is safest neither to possess nor to love riches.” @@ -1157,13 +1157,13 @@

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St. Ambrose, in like manner, says in his book, De Offic.: “Riches will not give us the slightest assistance in attaining to a life of blessedness. This is clearly pointed out by our Lord’s words, “Blessed are you poor, for yours is the Kingdom of God.” And again, he says that “poverty, hunger, pain, and suchlike evils that are borne as evils, are not merely no obstacle to blessedness, but they are clearly pronounced to be aids towards attaining to it.” Now these words cannot be understood as referring to habitual poverty, whereby a man is merely detached from riches; for, riches have never been held by any to be obstacles to happiness. They must, therefore, be understood to refer to actual poverty, whereby all possessions are given up.
Item. Gregorius dicit in 8 homilia secundae partis super Ezech.: cum quis suum aliquid Deo vovet, et aliquid non vovet, sacrificium est; cum vero omne quod habet, omne quod vivit, omne quod sapit, omnipotenti Deo voverit, holocaustum est. Sed holocaustum erat dignissimum sacrificiorum. Ergo perfectissimum opus est omnia sua propter Deum dimittere. - St. Gregory says (in the eighth homily of the second part on Ezech.), “ When a man consecrates to God one thing, but not another, he offers a sacrifice. But, when he gives to God his whole life, with all that he has and all that he loves, he offers a holocaust, which is the most acceptable form of sacrifice.” Hence it is the most perfect work to abandon all that we have for the love of God. + St. Gregory says (in the eighth homily of the second part on Ezech.), “When a man consecrates to God one thing, but not another, he offers a sacrifice. But, when he gives to God his whole life, with all that he has and all that he loves, he offers a holocaust, which is the most acceptable form of sacrifice.” Hence it is the most perfect work to abandon all that we have for the love of God.
Item. Gregorius in prologo Moralium: cum enim adhuc me cogeret animus praesenti mundo quasi specie tenus deservire, coeperunt multa contra me ex eiusdem mundi cura succrescere, ut in eo non iam specie, sed, quod est gravius, mente retinerer: quae tandem cuncta solicite fugiens, portum monasterii petii, et, relictis quae sunt mundi, ex huius mundi naufragio nudus evasi. Ex quo patet quod periculosum est res mundi possidere, quia earum possessio periculose mentem retinet: et ideo laudabilius est etiam possessionem rerum temporalium abiicere per actualem paupertatem, ut mens a cura divitiarum liberetur. St. Gregory likewise says (prolog. Moral.), “While I was still constrained to serve the world in appearance, many temporal anxieties rose up around me and claimed all my attention. At length, escaping from them, I sought the gate of the monastery and, forsaking the things of this world, which I then regarded as vanities, I escaped from them, as a mariner from a shipwreck.” Hence we see that it is dangerous to possess material goods; for they occupy the mind to a perilous degree. It is better, therefore, to relinquish the possession of earthly things by actual poverty, that so, the mind may be freed from solicitude concerning them.
Item. Chrysostomus dicit in Lib. quod nemo laeditur nisi a se ipso: quid apostolos penuria rerum corporalium laesit? Nonne in fame et siti et nuditate degebant; et pro his clari magni et magnifici habebantur, atque ingentem per hoc fiduciam quaesierunt apud Deum? Ex quo patet quod actualis paupertas, quae in penuria rerum consistit, ad apostolicam perfectionem pertinet. - St. Chrysostom asks in his book Quod nemo laeditur nisi a se ipso, “What harm did material poverty do to the Apostles? Did they not live in hunger and thirst and nakedness? and were they not, on this account, more renowned and glorious? and did not their poverty increase their trust in God? “ Hence we see that actual poverty, which consists in privation of all things, forms part of Apostolic perfection. + St. Chrysostom asks in his book Quod nemo laeditur nisi a se ipso, “What harm did material poverty do to the Apostles? Did they not live in hunger and thirst and nakedness? and were they not, on this account, more renowned and glorious? and did not their poverty increase their trust in God? “Hence we see that actual poverty, which consists in privation of all things, forms part of Apostolic perfection.
Item. Bernardus dicit ad Senonensem archiepiscopum: felix qui nihil sibi retentat ex omnibus, non habet foveam ut vulpes, non tanquam volucres, nidum; non loculos, quomodo Iudas, non domos, sicut nec Maria locum in diversorio: imitatus profecto illum qui non habebat ubi reclinaret caput. Ex quo patet quod nihil omnino possidere in mundo, ad Christianam perfectionem pertinet. St. Bernard writes to the Archbishop of Sens: “Blessed is he who keeps for himself nothing of what he possesses. Blessed is he who has not a den like the wolves, nor a nest like the birds, nor a purse like Judas, nor a house, but who, like Mary, finds no room even in an inn, and thus imitates Him who had not whereon to lay His head.” Entire destitution of all earthly possessions, therefore, pertains to Christian perfection. @@ -1172,7 +1172,7 @@

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In I quaest. II. cap. Si quis, we read: “He who strips himself of everything, or who, possessing nothing, desires nothing, is more perfect than he who out of his abundance gives something to the Church.” These words are another proof that actual poverty is a point of Christian perfection.
Item. Eum qui vacat contemplationi divinae, magis oportet esse a rebus mundanis liberum, quam eos qui contemplationi philosophicae vacabant. Sed philosophi, ut libere philosophiae vacarent, laudabiliter mundi substantiam abiciebant, unde Hieronymus dicit ad Paulinum presbyterum: Socrates ille Thebanus, homo quondam ditissimus, cum ad philosophandum Athenas pergeret, magnum auri pondus abiecit; nec putavit se posse et virtutes simul et divitias possidere. Ergo multo magis ad vacandum contemplationi divinae, laudabile est omnia sua relinquere: unde super illud Matth. XIX, 21: si vis perfectus esse dicit interlinearis: ecce contemplativa, quae ad Evangelium pertinet. - They who devote themselves to the contemplation of divine things ought to be more disengaged from temporal anxiety than they who apply themselves to the study of philosophy. But philosophers, in order to be able to give their whole attention to study, used to relinquish all their worldly possessions. St. Jerome says to the priest Paulinus (de instil. monach.), “Socrates, the Theban, a very wealthy man, when he went to study philosophy at Athens, cut away a large quantity of gold, judging that he could not, at the same time, possess both virtue and riches.” It is far more praiseworthy then to relinquish all worldly goods, for the sake of divine contemplation. The interlinear Gloss on the words, “ if you would be perfect,” etc. (Matt. xix) says: “Behold the life of contemplation taught by the Gospel.” + They who devote themselves to the contemplation of divine things ought to be more disengaged from temporal anxiety than they who apply themselves to the study of philosophy. But philosophers, in order to be able to give their whole attention to study, used to relinquish all their worldly possessions. St. Jerome says to the priest Paulinus (de instil. monach.), “Socrates, the Theban, a very wealthy man, when he went to study philosophy at Athens, cut away a large quantity of gold, judging that he could not, at the same time, possess both virtue and riches.” It is far more praiseworthy then to relinquish all worldly goods, for the sake of divine contemplation. The interlinear Gloss on the words, “if you would be perfect,” etc. (Matt. xix) says: “Behold the life of contemplation taught by the Gospel.”
Item. Praemium excellens non debetur nisi merito excellenti. Sed praemium excellens, idest iudiciaria potestas, debetur actuali paupertati; sicut patet Matth. XIX, 28, super illud, vos qui reliquistis etc. sedebitis etc. dicit Glossa: qui reliquerunt omnia, et secuti sunt dominum, hi iudices erunt: qui licita habentes, recte usi sunt, iudicabuntur. Ergo in actuali paupertate meritum excellens consistit. A great reward is only given for great merit. Now a great reward, i.e. judicial power, is due to actual poverty. This appears from the words of our Lord (Matt. xix.), “You who have left all things” etc. The Gloss commenting on this text says, “They who have left all things and have followed the Lord shall be judges; but they who have lawfully retained and used their goods, shall be judged.” Therefore, the higher merit is due to actual poverty. @@ -1214,7 +1214,7 @@

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No one is bound by precept to work with his hands, unless he can by no other lawful means procure a livelihood. Manual labour is not, therefore, a duty for those who possess nothing, unless they be obliged thereto by vow. Hence it is not true that they are bound absolutely to manual labour. They are only obliged to perform it, when it is their only means of subsistence; and, in such a case, everyone would be obliged to work with his hands, even if no vow imposed such labour on him as a duty.
Item. Consilium de paupertate a domino datum, ad vitam contemplativam ordinatur, ut patet per Glossam Matth. XIX, 21, super illud, si vis perfectus esse, Glossa: ecce contemplativa vita, quae ad Evangelium pertinet. Sed eos quos oportet manuum labore victum quaerere, necesse est plurimum a contemplationis opere retardari. Si ergo qui pauperem vitam eligunt propter Christum, necesse est manibus laborare, sequitur quod consilium paupertatis magis impediat quam promoveat id ad quod ordinatur; et ita erit indiscretum consilium: quod dicere est absurdum. - The counsel of poverty was given by our Lord, in order to facilitate contemplation. This is pointed out by the Gloss on the words of Matt. xix., “If you would be perfect.” “Behold,” says the Gloss, “ the contemplative life ordained by the Gospel.” They, however, who are forced to gain their livelihood by the work of their hands, are greatly distracted from contemplation. If then those who, for the love of Christ, choose a life of poverty, be bound to manual labour, the very purpose for which the counsel of poverty was given will be frustrated. The counsel, therefore, will have been given to no purpose. This line of argument is, of course, absurd. + The counsel of poverty was given by our Lord, in order to facilitate contemplation. This is pointed out by the Gloss on the words of Matt. xix., “If you would be perfect.” “Behold,” says the Gloss, “the contemplative life ordained by the Gospel.” They, however, who are forced to gain their livelihood by the work of their hands, are greatly distracted from contemplation. If then those who, for the love of Christ, choose a life of poverty, be bound to manual labour, the very purpose for which the counsel of poverty was given will be frustrated. The counsel, therefore, will have been given to no purpose. This line of argument is, of course, absurd.
Item. Si eos qui relinquunt omnia propter Christum, oportet intentionem habere ut manibus laborent; aut ista intentio ordinatur ad laborem manuum propter se ipsum, aut propter victum quaerendum, aut propter eleemosynas faciendas ex his quae labore manuum acquiruntur. Sed ridiculum est dicere quod spiritualis perfectio, quae in paupertate consistit, ad laborem corporalem ordinetur; sic enim labor corporalis spirituali perfectioni praeferetur. Similiter non potest dici quod intentio eorum debet ordinari ad laborem manuum propter victum quaerendum: tum quia victum habere poterant ex rebus quas dimiserunt: tum quia labor manuum pauperibus Christi, qui orationibus et aliis spiritualibus bonis vacant, ad victum non sufficit de facili: unde etiamsi manibus laborent, indigent a fidelibus sustentari, ut dicit Augustinus in Lib. de opere Monach. Similiter non potest dici quod labori manuum debeant intendere propter eleemosynas exinde faciendas: quia multo largiores eleemosynas ex rebus possessis prius facere potuissent; et sic non oportebat propter hoc eos sua relinquere, ut ex labore manuum eleemosynas facerent. Ergo non oportet quod illi qui sua relinquentes, possessiones communes non habent, laborare manibus intendant. Ad hoc autem faciunt illa quae supra de labore manuum dicta sunt. If they who leave all things for the love of Christ, be bound to have the intention of working with their hands, they must form this intention for one of the three following reasons. They must intend to perform manual labour either for its own sake or to provide means of subsistence, or in order to procure money which can be given in alms. Now it is absurd to say that the spiritual perfection of poverty can consist in manual labour undertaken for its own sake. For, were such the case the work of the body, would be preferred before the perfection of the soul. Again, it is not reasonable to say that a man ought to leave all things with the intention of going to earn his own living. For, if he had stayed in the world he could have lived by the possessions, which he has forsaken; and further the manual labour of the poor of Christ who devote themselves to prayer and other spiritual exercises barely suffices to maintain them. They must therefore, as St. Augustine says in his book De opere monachorum, be assisted by the faithful. Thirdly, it cannot be maintained that manual labour ought to be undertaken in order to procure means for almsgiving. For they who enter religion could have given much more abundantly to the poor of the goods which they possessed in the world. Thus, they would act unreasonably in leaving all things, in order to do manual work for the sake of giving alms. They, therefore, who, having left all things enter a religious order which has no common property are not, as we have already shown, bound to have the intention of performing manual labour. @@ -1226,7 +1226,7 @@

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Ad 1. With regard to the text from the Book of Proverbs concerning “beggary and riches,” we answer that as there is no evil in riches themselves, but in the abuse of them, so beggary or poverty is not, in itself an evil. The only evil of poverty is its abuse, when there is impatience or reluctance in bearing the suffering resulting from it, or when there arises a covetous desire of the goods of others. “Those who would become rich fall into temptation and into the snare of the devil” (1 Tim. vi. 9). St. Chrysostom likewise says on St. Matthew, “Listen, you who are poor, and still more carefully you who desire to be rich. It is not a bad thing to be poor; the real evil is to be unwilling to be poor.” It is therefore evident that poverty which is a necessity is accompanied by certain dangers, from which voluntary poverty is free. For they who become poor by their own act do not desire to be rich. Hence the prayer of Solomon concerning beggary and riches refers to involuntary poverty. This is clear from the context, “being compelled by poverty,” etc. The Gloss likewise says on this text of Proverbs, “The man who walks with God, prays that he may not, either through abundance or scarcity of material goods, fall into forgetfulness of such as are eternal.” Hence we see that Solomon teaches us that it is not poverty or riches themselves which are to be avoided, but the misuse of either of these conditions.
Ad illud quod secundo obiicitur, quod utilior est sapientia cum divitiis etc., dicendum, quod verbum illud Salomonis procedit secundum regulam quam philosophus docet in I Lib. Ethic., quod maximum bonum, sicut felicitas, connumeratum minimo bonorum est eligibilius: unde etsi sapientia quae inter maxima computatur bona, connumeretur cum divitiis, quae sunt de minimis bonis, est eligibilior. Sed secundum hanc regulam, maximum bonum connumeratum alteri maximo bono, est eligibilius quam si connumeretur minimo bono, vel per se ipsum accipiatur. Unde sapientia cum perfectione evangelica, quae in paupertate consistit, quae est de maximis bonis, est eligibilior quam sapientia per se accepta, vel sapientia cum divitiis. - Ad 2. The words of Solomon, “ wisdom with riches is more profitable,” etc., must be explained according to the rule laid down by Aristotle (I Ethic), viz. that “the greatest good, such as happiness, joined to a lesser good, is preferable to that lesser good.” Hence wisdom, which is amongst the greatest goods, is preferable to riches, which are an inferior good. But, according to this rule, the greatest good joined to another very great good is of more worth than if it be joined to a lesser good, or if it be considered by itself. Hence wisdom joined to evangelical perfection, which consists in poverty, and is one of the greatest goods, is worth more than wisdom considered by itself, or joined to riches. + Ad 2. The words of Solomon, “wisdom with riches is more profitable,” etc., must be explained according to the rule laid down by Aristotle (I Ethic), viz. that “the greatest good, such as happiness, joined to a lesser good, is preferable to that lesser good.” Hence wisdom, which is amongst the greatest goods, is preferable to riches, which are an inferior good. But, according to this rule, the greatest good joined to another very great good is of more worth than if it be joined to a lesser good, or if it be considered by itself. Hence wisdom joined to evangelical perfection, which consists in poverty, and is one of the greatest goods, is worth more than wisdom considered by itself, or joined to riches.
Ad illud quod tertio obiicitur, propter inopiam multi perierunt, dicendum, quod loquitur de inopia involuntaria, quae habet de necessitate desiderium divitiarum annexum: unde ibi sequitur: qui quaerit locupletari, Glossa, in mundo, avertit oculum suum, Glossa, interiorem a timore Dei. Ad 3. The words, “through poverty many have sinned refers to compulsory poverty, which is necessarily accompanied by a desire for riches. We see this by the context, “He who seeks to be rich, turns away his eye.” As the Gloss explains, “He turns away the eye of his soul from the fear of the Lord.” @@ -1244,7 +1244,7 @@

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Ad 7. To the seventh objection, we reply that some temporal things, such as food and clothing, are absolutely necessary for the support of life. If I have more of such things than I need, I ought to assist the destitute, but I ought not to deprive myself of necessary food or raiment. It is of such things as are acquired for our present needs that the Gloss speaks in the passage quoted in the seventh objection. But there are temporal things, such as money and property which, though not needed at present, may in the future be necessary to our support. There is no reason why perfect men should not distribute these things to the poor; for, before they are needed, God may supply the lack of them in some other way; and we are commanded in the Scriptures to trust that He will do so.
Ad illud quod octavo obiicitur, dicendum, quod quamvis non sit praeceptum ut nihil pecuniae ad usus necessarios reservetur, est tamen consilium: nec dominus loculos habuit quasi alias ei non potuisset provideri, sed ut in se infirmorum gerens personam, ut sibi licitum crederent quod a Christo observatum viderent: unde Ioan. XII, 6, super illud, et loculos habens, dicit Glossa: cui Angeli ministrabant, loculos habuit in sumptus pauperum, condescendens infirmis; et super illud Psalmi producens fenum iumentis, dicit Glossa: dominus loculos habebat in usus eorum qui cum eo erant et suos, et religiosas mulieres in comitatu quae ministrabant ei de substantia sua, in his infirmorum magis suscipiens personam; praevidit enim multos infirmos futuros et ista quaesituros, ut ibi eorundem personam suscepit dicens: tristis est anima mea usque ad mortem. Et tamen loculos quos habebat, ex possessionibus non impleverat, sed ex his quae ei a devotis et fidelibus administrabantur. - Ad 8. To the eighth objection, we reply that although it be not a matter of precept to reserve money for our necessities, it is nevertheless a matter of counsel. Our Lord carried a purse, not because He was unable otherwise to supply His needs, but for the sake of His weaker members, and in order that they might understand that it was lawful for them to do what they saw done by Christ. Hence the Gloss, on the words “ having the purse” (John xii), says: “He to whom the angels ministered, carried a purse out of condescension to our weakness and for the assistance of the poor.” Again, on the, verse in Psalm ciii., “bringing forth grass for cattle,” the Gloss says: “The Lord had a purse for the use of those who were with Him, and because in His own person He carried the infirmity of the weak, as when He said: ‘My soul is sorrowful’.” He was followed by pious women who ministered to Him of their substance. For He foresaw that in the future many of His followers would be weak and would seek material assistance. He did not fill his purse with His own property, but with alms given Him by devout and faithful men. + Ad 8. To the eighth objection, we reply that although it be not a matter of precept to reserve money for our necessities, it is nevertheless a matter of counsel. Our Lord carried a purse, not because He was unable otherwise to supply His needs, but for the sake of His weaker members, and in order that they might understand that it was lawful for them to do what they saw done by Christ. Hence the Gloss, on the words “having the purse” (John xii), says: “He to whom the angels ministered, carried a purse out of condescension to our weakness and for the assistance of the poor.” Again, on the, verse in Psalm ciii., “bringing forth grass for cattle,” the Gloss says: “The Lord had a purse for the use of those who were with Him, and because in His own person He carried the infirmity of the weak, as when He said: ‘My soul is sorrowful’.” He was followed by pious women who ministered to Him of their substance. For He foresaw that in the future many of His followers would be weak and would seek material assistance. He did not fill his purse with His own property, but with alms given Him by devout and faithful men.
Ad nonum dicendum, quod, sicut in 2 Ethic. determinatur, medium in virtutibus non accipitur secundum aequidistantiam ab extremis, sed secundum debitam proportionem circumstantiarum, quam facit ratio recta: unde non oportet quod medium virtutis sit inter superfluum et diminutum in unaquaque circumstantia secundum se considerata, sed in una circumstantia per comparationem ad alias. Contingit enim quandoque quod unius circumstantiae modum variare oportet secundum variationem alterius circumstantiae: verbi gratia, in sobrietate modus huius circumstantiae quid variatur secundum varietatem huius circumstantiae quis: constat enim quod aliquid in cibum sumere est alicui personae moderatum, quod alteri personae est superfluum, alteri vero diminutum. Unde aliquando contingit quod una circumstantia in sui maximo existens, moderatur secundum proportionem ad aliam circumstantiam, sicut in magnanimitate contingit. Magnanimus enim, secundum philosophum in 4 Ethic., maxime se dignificat: unde qui excedit hanc virtutem in superfluitate, quem caynum vocat, non magnificat se maioribus quam magnanimus; sed in hoc excedit virtutis modum, quod illa quae erant magnanimo moderata, sibi sunt superflua. Patet ergo quod medium virtutis non corrumpitur ex hoc quod una circumstantia in sui summo accipitur, dummodo per alias circumstantias moderetur. Si ergo in liberalitate consideremus quid sit dandum, et accipiatur ultimum huius circumstantiae, videlicet omnia dare: aliquibus circumstantiis adiunctis, cedet in superfluitatem, et erit prodigalitatis vitium; aliis autem circumstantiis adiunctis, erit perfectae liberalitatis opus: verbi gratia, si det aliquis omnia sua ut consulat patriae, cui periculum destructionis imminet, non reputabitur etiam a morali philosopho prodigus, sed perfecte liberalis. Similiter et qui omnia sua dat propter Christi consilium implendum, non est prodigus, sed perfectum actum virtutis facit. Si autem non debito fine, aut aliis circumstantiis indebitis omnia daret, prodigus esset. Et similiter est dicendum de virginitate, et de aliis huiusmodi, in quibus videtur excessus supra communem modum virtutis. Sic ergo patet quod dare omnia propter Christum, non est dare danda et non danda, sed est dare danda tantum. Quamvis enim non omnia sint danda quocumque modo, sunt tamen omnia danda propter Christum. Ad 9. Our answer to the ninth objection, is the rule laid down in II Ethic, viz. that “the medium in virtue does not signify the distance from extremes, but the due proportion of circumstances, ordered by well balanced reason.” Hence the medium of virtue does not consist in preserving the right balance between superfluity and scarcity in any circumstance considered in itself, but in a circumstance considered in comparison with other circumstances. Thus, the medium of virtue may vary according to the variability of circumstances. In sobriety, for instance, the circumstance who is varied according to the variety of the circumstance what. An amount of food which would be a moderate quantity for one person, would be too much for another, and too little for a third. Thus, again, some virtue, such as magnanimity, existing in its highest degree, may be moderate in proportion to some other circumstance. “The magnanimous man,” says Aristotle (IV Ethic), “confers the greatest dignity on himself.” He who exceeds the virtue of magnanimity by superfluity, does not thereby acquire greater dignity, but oversteps the limits of virtue; and those things which were moderation in him as a magnanimous man, are now superfluous. Hence we see that the medium of virtue is not destroyed because one circumstance is in its highest degree, so long as that circumstance be proportioned to other circumstances. Thus, in a case of liberality, if we consider the quantity to be given, and if we attend only to the circumstance that in certain cases it is superfluous to give everything, we shall find the vice of prodigality. On the other hand, with a certain change of circumstances, this prodigality will become perfect liberality. For instance, if a man gives all that he possesses to save his country from danger, he will be an example of perfect liberality. In the same way, he who gives away all that he has in order to fulfil the counsel of our Lord, acts not with prodigality, but with perfect virtue. If, however, such a man were to spend his all upon some unfitting object, or with some unseemly circumstances, he would be prodigal. We may say the same of virginity and of all other virtues wherein there appears to be excess when the common mean of virtue is overstepped. Hence we see that to give everything for the love of Christ means not to give both what ought and ought not to be given, but to give only that which ought to be given. For, although all things are not in every case to be given, yet all things are to be given up for Christ. @@ -1268,7 +1268,7 @@

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Ad 15. To the fifteenth objection, we likewise reply that, although the Apostles reserved certain sums for themselves and to distribute among those holy men who had made themselves poor for Christ, that money was not their own, but was given them by the faithful in charity. When we are told that there was none needy among them, we are not to conclude that the Apostles and Christians of the early Church did not endure much poverty for the love of Christ. For, St. Paul says, (1 Cor. iv. 11), “Even to this hour we both hunger and thirst.” And again (2 Cor. vi. 4) “in much patience, in tribulations, in necessities” or, as the Gloss says, “want of food and clothing.” We must understand by these texts that the Apostles, in so far as they were able, supplied the poorer members of the community with such things as were needful to them.
Ad decimumsextum dicendum, quod quamvis illud praeceptum, in viam gentium ne abieritis, fuerit post resurrectionem totaliter revocatum, eo quod primum oportebat Iudaeis verbum Dei loqui et sic transire ad gentes, ut dicitur Act. XIII, 46; tamen hoc quod dominus dixerat apostolis, quod non secum necessaria ferrent, non totaliter revocavit in coena; sed solum tempore persecutionis, quando a persecutoribus necessaria habere non potuissent: unde Luc. XXII, 35: quando misi vos etc. dicit Glossa: non eadem vivendi regula persecutionis tempore, qua pacis, discipulos informat. Missis siquidem discipulis ad praedicandum, ne quid tollerent in via praecepit, ordinans scilicet ut qui Evangelium nuntiat, de Evangelio vivat. Instante vero mortis articulo, et tota illa gente pastorem simul et gregem persequente, congruam tempori regulam decernit, permittens ut tollant victui necessaria, donec sopita insania persecutorum, tempus evangelizandi redeat. Et alia Glossa dicit: in hoc quoque nobis datur exemplum, quod nonnunquam causa instante, quaedam de nostri propositi rigore sine culpa intermittere possumus. Verbi gratia: si per inhospitales regiones iter agimus, plura viatici causa licet portare quam domi habeamus. Sed quia quidam haeretici, quorum est ista obiectio, Glossas non recipiunt, ex ipso textu ostendimus quod multiplicatis fidelibus discipuli Christi secum in via necessaria non portabant. Dicitur enim in ult. Can. Ioan.: carissime, fideliter facis quidquid operaris in fratres, et hoc in peregrinos; et infra (v. 7-8): pro nomine enim eius profecti sunt, nihil accipientes a gentibus. Nos ergo debemus huiusmodi suscipere. Non autem esset necessarium, quamvis a gentibus nihil acciperent, quod reciperentur a fidelibus, si secum necessaria ad victum deferrent: quod etiam patet per Glossam quae ibi dicit: pro nomine eius profecti sunt, alieni a rebus propriis. - Ad 16. To the sixteenth objection we reply that the prohibition given by our Lord to His disciples, “not to go into the way of the Gentiles,” was absolutely rescinded by Him after the resurrection; because it then became necessary for the Jews to preach the word of God to the Gentiles (Acts xiii.). But Christ did not, at the last supper, absolutely revoke His precept to the disciples to take nothing with them on the way. He only gave them a different order, which was to be obeyed during the time of persecution, when they would not have been able to procure the necessities of life. Hence the Gloss says on the text of St. Luke, xxii. 35), “When I sent you,” etc.: “The Apostles are not told to observe the same rule in time of persecution as in time of peace. For, when they were sent to preach, our Lord told them take nothing with them, for it was His will that those who preach the Gospel should live by the Gospel. But, when His death was imminent, and the hour drew near when both the pastors and the flock should be exposed to persecution, He instituted a rule befitting the circumstances; and so He permitted His disciples to carry with them the means of sustenance till such time as the fury of their persecutors should have abated, and a fitting season for preaching the Gospel should have arrived.” “Thus,” the Gloss continues, “does Christ teach us that under certain circumstances, we are justified in relaxing the rigour of our rule.” We may, for example, when preaching in a hostile country, carry with us larger supplies than we should have at home. But the heretics who make the objection which it is our duty to combat, do not accept the Gloss. We shall, therefore, show by the text of the Scriptures that when the faithful increased in number, the disciples of Christ did not carry with them the means of support We read (3 John i. 5), “Dearly beloved, it is a loyal thing you do when you render any service to the brethren, especially to strangers.” Again, “ Because, for His name, they went out, taking nothing of the Gentiles, we therefore ought to receive such.” Now if the Apostles had carried supplies with them, it would not have been necessary for them to have been assisted by the faithful, even though the Gentiles had refused them any help. This is made still more clear by the words of the Gloss, “because for His name they went forth, forsaking their own possessions.” + Ad 16. To the sixteenth objection we reply that the prohibition given by our Lord to His disciples, “not to go into the way of the Gentiles,” was absolutely rescinded by Him after the resurrection; because it then became necessary for the Jews to preach the word of God to the Gentiles (Acts xiii.). But Christ did not, at the last supper, absolutely revoke His precept to the disciples to take nothing with them on the way. He only gave them a different order, which was to be obeyed during the time of persecution, when they would not have been able to procure the necessities of life. Hence the Gloss says on the text of St. Luke, xxii. 35), “When I sent you,” etc.: “The Apostles are not told to observe the same rule in time of persecution as in time of peace. For, when they were sent to preach, our Lord told them take nothing with them, for it was His will that those who preach the Gospel should live by the Gospel. But, when His death was imminent, and the hour drew near when both the pastors and the flock should be exposed to persecution, He instituted a rule befitting the circumstances; and so He permitted His disciples to carry with them the means of sustenance till such time as the fury of their persecutors should have abated, and a fitting season for preaching the Gospel should have arrived.” “Thus,” the Gloss continues, “does Christ teach us that under certain circumstances, we are justified in relaxing the rigour of our rule.” We may, for example, when preaching in a hostile country, carry with us larger supplies than we should have at home. But the heretics who make the objection which it is our duty to combat, do not accept the Gloss. We shall, therefore, show by the text of the Scriptures that when the faithful increased in number, the disciples of Christ did not carry with them the means of support We read (3 John i. 5), “Dearly beloved, it is a loyal thing you do when you render any service to the brethren, especially to strangers.” Again, “Because, for His name, they went out, taking nothing of the Gentiles, we therefore ought to receive such.” Now if the Apostles had carried supplies with them, it would not have been necessary for them to have been assisted by the faithful, even though the Gentiles had refused them any help. This is made still more clear by the words of the Gloss, “because for His name they went forth, forsaking their own possessions.”
Ad decimumseptimum dicendum, quod quia Ecclesia multos infirmos sustinet, quos non de facili sustineret (si) sine temporalium possessionum solatio ecclesiasticam vitam duceret, expedit facultates communes in Ecclesia possideri propriis dimissis, et praecipue propter pauperes sustentandos. Non tamen sequitur quod non sit expediens perfectis viris, qui sua dimiserunt, vitam religiosam agere sine communibus possessionibus: et quamvis perfectio apostolica non annulletur in illis qui possessiones communes habent, tamen expressius conservatur in illis qui propriis dimissis, etiam communibus carent. Ad 17. The seventeenth objection is answered by the fact that the Church supports many that are sick; and that she could not do so without the possession of some material wealth. Hence it is right for a man to give up his own property and to hold that of the Church; and he should act this way, on account of the poor. But, it does not follow that it is not expedient for perfect men, who have sacrificed all that belongs to them, to lead a religious life in an order which possesses no common property. Apostolic perfection is not wanting to those who have possessions in common; but it appears more manifestly in those who relinquish their private property and have no property in common. @@ -1289,7 +1289,7 @@

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Ad 22. We reply to the twenty-second objection that although the holy Fathers have commended one course, they have not blamed the other. Therefore, it is not presumptuous, to follow this other course; else, it would not be lawful to introduce into the Church any new ordinance. Nevertheless, the mode of life of which we speak cannot be called new, as it was approved by many Saints, even in the primitive Church.
Ad vigesimumtertium dicendum, quod subvenire indigentibus indicitur illis qui divitias possident, sicut patet ex hoc quod dicitur I Ioan. IV: si quis habuerit substantiam huius mundi, et viderit fratrem suum necessitatem habere etc.; sed multo est laudabilius quod aliquis omnibus suis datis, etiam se ipsum Deo det: quod ad apostolicam perfectionem pertinet: unde dicit Hieronymus ad Lucinum eremitam: se ipsum offerre Deo, proprium Christianorum est, et apostolorum, qui totum censum quem habuerant, domino tradiderunt. - Ad 23. Our answer to the twenty-third objection, is that it is a duty for rich men to assist the needy. For, as St, John says, (1 Jn. iii.), “He who has the substance of this world, and sees his brother in need, and shuts up his bowels from him: how does the charity of God abide in him?” But it is even more praiseworthy if a man, besides sacrificing all his possessions, consecrates himself to God. This is truly Apostolic perfection. For, as St., Jerome says; “To offer oneself to God is a truly Christian act and worthy of the Apostles, who, having renounced all they had, offered themselves to the Lord “ (ad Lucinum Beticum). + Ad 23. Our answer to the twenty-third objection, is that it is a duty for rich men to assist the needy. For, as St, John says, (1 Jn. iii.), “He who has the substance of this world, and sees his brother in need, and shuts up his bowels from him: how does the charity of God abide in him?” But it is even more praiseworthy if a man, besides sacrificing all his possessions, consecrates himself to God. This is truly Apostolic perfection. For, as St., Jerome says; “To offer oneself to God is a truly Christian act and worthy of the Apostles, who, having renounced all they had, offered themselves to the Lord “(ad Lucinum Beticum).
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1. They quote the words of Deuteronomy (xvi. 19): “Do not show partiality or accept gifts [bribes]; for a gift blinds the eyes of the wise, and changes the words of the just.” Now alms are a species of gift; and as religious, above all other men, ought to have the eyes of the soul enlightened, they are not justified in living on alms.
Item. Prov. XXII, 7: qui accipit mutuum, servus est fenerantis. Multo magis ergo qui accipit datum, servus dantis efficitur. Sed religiosos maxime decet esse liberos a servitute saeculi, quia in libertatem spiritus sunt vocati: unde II Thess. III, 9, super illud, ut nosmetipsos formam daremus etc. dicit Glossa: religio nostra ad libertatem homines advocat. Ergo non debent de eleemosynis vivere. - 2. “The borrower is servant to the one who lends” (Prov. xxii. 7). Much more then is he who accepts a gift the servant of him who gives it. Now it religious should be free from the bondage of the world, for they are called unto liberty of spirit. The Gloss, on the words (2 Thes. iii.), “That we might give ourselves a pattern for you,” observes: “Our religion calls men to freedom.” Therefore, religious ought not to live on alms. + 2. “The borrower is servant to the one who lends” (Prov. xxii. 7). Much more then is he who accepts a gift the servant of him who gives it. Now the religious should be free from the bondage of the world, for they are called unto liberty of spirit. The Gloss, on the words (2 Thes. iii.), “That we might give ourselves a pattern for you,” observes: “Our religion calls men to freedom.” Therefore, religious ought not to live on alms.
Item. Religiosi statum perfectionis profitentur. Sed perfectius est dare eleemosynas quam accipere: unde dicitur Act. XX, 35: beatius est magis dare quam accipere. Ergo magis debent laborare manibus, ut habeant unde tribuant necessitatem patienti, quam eleemosynas accipere de quibus vivant. 3. Religious make profession of a state of perfection. Now it is a more perfect thing to give than to receive alms. Hence in the Acts of the Apostles (xx. 35) it is said: “It is a more blessed thing to give than to receive.” Therefore, religious ought, rather, to work with their hands, so that they may be able to give to the needy, instead of receiving from others alms, upon which they are to live. @@ -1320,7 +1320,7 @@

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5. St. Jerome says (I, q. II cap. Clericos), “They who are able to live either on their patrimony or by means of their work, and yet accept alms, commit a sacrilege; and by their abuse of charity they eat and drink judgment to themselves.” Hence anyone who has other means of subsistence, and chooses to live on alms, must be reputed as guilty of sacrilege.
Item. II Thess. ult. super illud, ut nosmetipsos formam daremus etc., Glossa: qui frequenter ad alienam mensam convenit otio deditus, aduletur necesse est pascenti se. Sed illi qui de eleemosynis vivunt, frequenter ad mensas aliorum conveniunt, immo magis semper de mensa aliorum vivunt. Ergo de necessitate sunt adulatores. Peccant ergo qui se in tali statu ponunt quod oporteat eos de eleemosynis vivere. - 6. The Gloss commenting on the text of 2 Thes., “that we might give ourselves a pattern” etc., says: “ He who, in his indolence, constantly eats at the table of another must necessarily flatter his host.” Now they who live on charity often eat at the expense of their neighbour; they are, therefore, sure to become flatterers. It is sinful in them, therefore, to reduce themselves to a condition which obliges them to live on alms. + 6. The Gloss commenting on the text of 2 Thes., “that we might give ourselves a pattern” etc., says: “He who, in his indolence, constantly eats at the table of another must necessarily flatter his host.” Now they who live on charity often eat at the expense of their neighbour; they are, therefore, sure to become flatterers. It is sinful in them, therefore, to reduce themselves to a condition which obliges them to live on alms.
Item. Accipere non potest esse actus alicuius virtutis nisi liberalitatis, quae medium tenet in dando et accipiendo. Sed liberalis accipit solum ut det, ut dicit philosophus in 4 Ethic. Ergo illi qui ducunt vitam in semper accipiendo, illiberaliter et reprehensibiliter vivunt. 7. The acceptance of gifts cannot be an act of any virtue save of liberality, which is the mean between giving and receiving. But a liberal man only accepts in order to give, as Aristotle says (V. Ethic). Hence they who spend their lives in accepting live in a reprehensible manner. @@ -1344,10 +1344,10 @@

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12. If religious who are well and strong may lawfully live on alms without manual labour, other men are justified in doing the same. But, if everyone pursue the same course, the human race will come to an end; for no one will be found to prepare what is necessary for the support of life. Hence it can by no means be counted lawful for strong and healthy religious to live on alms.
Item, in collationibus patrum inducuntur haec verba ex sententia Antonii ad quendam loquentis: noveris autem te etiam ex hoc non levius quam illo quod supra diximus feriri detrimento qui, cum sis sani corporis ac robusti, stipe sustentaris aliena quae iuste solis est debilibus attributa; ergo illi qui non sunt debiles non debent de eleemosynis vivere. - 13. [Again, in the Conferences of the Fathers, are found these words of Anthony: "More seriously than from what we said above, you should know that you are wounded by this deficiency, that, while having a healthy and robust body, you are depending for a living on a stipend that is rigthly given only to the weaker." Therefore those who are not wek should not live on alms.] + 13. [Again, in the Conferences of the Fathers, are found these words of Anthony: "More seriously than from what we said above, you should know that you are wounded by this deficiency, that, while having a healthy and robust body, you are depending for a living on a stipend that is rigthly given only to the weaker." Therefore those who are not weak should not live on alms.]
Item, Ieronymus ad Marcum presbyterum: nihil alicui praeripui, nihil otiosus accipio, manu cotidie et proprio sudore quaerimus cibum, scientes ab apostolo esse dictum: qui non operatur non manducet; ergo non licet sine labore manuum de eleemosynis vivere. - 14. [Again, Jerome wrote to Mark the priest: "I grabbed nothing from anyone, I accept nothing while being idel, I get my food by my own hands and sweat every day, knowing that the Apostle said: 'He who does not work should not eat.'" Therefroe it is not lawfult to live on alms and not do manual work.] + 14. [Again, Jerome wrote to Mark the priest: "I grabbed nothing from anyone, I accept nothing while being idle, I get my food by my own hands and sweat every day, knowing that the Apostle said: 'He who does not work should not eat.'" Therefore it is not lawfult to live on alms and not do manual work.]
Ulterius nituntur ostendere, quod etsi possent aliquo modo de eleemosynis ultro oblatis vivere, non tamen debent eleemosynas mendicando petere. 2 Our adversaries, seek likewise to prove that although religious may live on the alms offered to them, they have no right to beg. @@ -1362,7 +1362,7 @@

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3. A curse is not uttered in Holy Scripture against the just. But in Psalm cviii. 10 mendicity is accounted a curse: “Let his children be carried about vagabonds and beg.” Hence mendicity is not a state befitting perfect men.
Item. I Thess. IV, 11: operemini manibus vestris, sicut praecepimus vobis, ut honeste ambuletis ad eos qui foris sunt, et nullius aliquid desideretis. Glossa: quasi, ideo opus est agendum, non otiandum, quia honestum est, et quasi lux ad infideles: et non desiderabitis rem alterius, nedum rogetis, vel tollatis aliquid. Ergo potius est manibus operandum quam rogando petere aliquid per mendicitatem. - 4. St. Paul exhorts the Thessalonians (1 Thes. iv. 11), in the following terms: “Work with your own hands, at we commanded you:...walk honestly towards those who are without;...be dependent on nobody.” The Gloss adds: “Therefore should you work, and not live in idleness. This is honourable, and is as a light to unbelievers. You should not desire another man’s goods, you should neither ask for them, nor take them.” Hence it is plain that manual labour is preferable to begging. + 4. St. Paul exhorts the Thessalonians (1 Thes. iv. 11), in the following terms: “Work with your own hands, as we commanded you:...walk honestly towards those who are without;...be dependent on nobody.” The Gloss adds: “Therefore should you work, and not live in idleness. This is honourable, and is as a light to unbelievers. You should not desire another man’s goods, you should neither ask for them, nor take them.” Hence it is plain that manual labour is preferable to begging.
Item. II ad Thess. III, 10, super illud, si quis non vult operari et cetera. Glossa: vult servos Dei corporaliter operari unde vivant, ut non compellantur egestate necessaria petere. Ergo potius debent manibus operari quam necessaria petere mendicando. 5. St. Augustine thus comments on the words: “if any man will not work,” etc.: “The servants of God ought to do some work, whereby they may earn a livelihood; so that they may not be compelled by necessity to beg.” Thus, we see that they are bound to manual labour rather than to mendicancy. @@ -1377,7 +1377,7 @@

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8. St. Augustine, in De opere monachorum, speaks thus of mendicant religious: “Our crafty enemy sends out hypocrites who, in the monastic habit, roam from province to province. They bear no commission. They settle nowhere, and are never at rest. They beg for everything. They exact all things, either as the requirements of their lucrative poverty, or as the reward of their pretended sanctity.”
Item. Illud quod naturaliter habet erubescentiam adiunctam in se, aliquid turpitudinis videtur habere; cum verecundia non sit nisi de turpi, ut Damascenus dicit. Sed petere vel mendicare naturaliter homo erubescit, tantoque magis, quanto est melioris naturae: unde dicit Ambrosius in Lib. de Offic. quod verecundia petendi ingenuos prodit natales: et philosophus in 4 Ethic. dicit de liberali, quod non est petitivus. Ergo mendicare in se turpe est; et ita nullo modo mendicare debet qui aliter vivere potest. - 9. That which naturally causes shame in man, is intrinsically disgraceful. For, as St. John Damascene says, we only blush for what is shameful. Now men are instinctively ashamed of begging; and the nobler a mans’ nature, the more acutely he feels the disgrace of mendicancy. Thus St. Ambrose says (lib. de offic.) that shame at begging proves the nobility of a man. And Aristotle (V Ethics) says that a freeman is “not prone to beg.” Mendicity then is in itself disgraceful; and no one ought to resort to it who can live by any other means. + 9. That which naturally causes shame in man is intrinsically disgraceful. For, as St. John Damascene says, we only blush for what is shameful. Now men are instinctively ashamed of begging; and the nobler a man’s nature, the more acutely he feels the disgrace of mendicancy. Thus St. Ambrose says (lib. de offic.) that shame at begging proves the nobility of a man. And Aristotle (V Ethics) says that a freeman is “not prone to beg.” Mendicity then is in itself disgraceful; and no one ought to resort to it who can live by any other means.
Item. II Cor. IX, 7, super illud, hilarem datorem etc., Glossa: qui dat ut careat taedio interpellantis, non ut reficiat viscera indigentis, et rem et meritum perdit. Sed frequenter hoc modo datur mendicantibus, quia mendicantes taedium faciunt petendo. Ergo etsi aliqui possint de eleemosynis vivere, non tamen deberent mendicare. 10. The Gloss, on the words: “God loves a cheerful giver” (2 Cor. ix.), runs as follows: “He who gives in order to rid himself of the importunity of a beggar rather than to relieve the need of a poor man loses the merit of his alms. But charity is often thus bestowed on beggars; for they weary men by their persistence.” @@ -1389,13 +1389,13 @@

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1. St. Paul says (1 Thess. ii.), “Neither have we used at any time the speech of flattery, as you know.” Now preachers who beg and live on alms are obliged to flatter those whose charity they receive. The Gloss on the words, “and leaving them, he went out” (Matt. xxi) says: “For as He was poor and flattered none, He received hospitality from no one in the city, save from Lazarus.” And yet, for this very cause, the preaching of our Lord was all the more powerful. For, as Luke tells us (xxi. 38), “the people came early in the morning to him in the temple, to hear him.”
Et I ad Cor. IV, 11, dicitur: usque in hanc horam et esurimus et sitimus et nudi sumus: Glossa: libere enim et sine aliqua adulatione veritatem praedicantes, et gesta pravae vitae malorum arguentes, gratiam non habent apud homines. Ergo praedicatores non debent de eleemosynis victum quaerere. - 2. Again, St. Paul says (1 Cor. iv. 11), “Even to this hour we both hunger and thirst and are naked.” On these words the Gloss makes the following comment: “Those who preach, the truth with sincerity and without flattery, and who reprove the vices of mankind are not favourably heard.” Therefore, preachers ought not to ask for alms. + 2. Again, St. Paul says (1 Cor. iv. 11), “Even to this hour we both hunger and thirst and are naked.” On these words the Gloss makes the following comment: “Those who preach the truth with sincerity and without flattery and who reprove the vices of mankind are not favourably heard.” Therefore, preachers ought not to ask for alms.
Item. I ad Thess. II, 5: neque fuimus in occasione avaritiae, Deus testis est: Glossa: non dico in avaritia, sed nec feci nec dixi in quo esset occasio avaritiae. Sed illi qui petunt eleemosynas sibi dari, faciunt aliquid in quo est occasio avaritiae. Ergo praedicatores non debent hoc facere. 3. St, Paul says: (1 Thess. ii. 5), “Neither have we taken an occasion of covetousness. God knows.” Gloss observes hereon, “The Apostle does not say: ‘I have not been covetous,’ but ‘I have neither said nor done anything that can be an occasion of covetousness.’” Preachers ought to be able to speak in like manner. Those, however, who beg become, on the contrary, an occasion of covetousness to others.
Item. II Cor. ult.: non ero gravis vobis: non enim quaero quae vestra sunt, sed vos: et ad Philip. ult. 17: non quia quaero datum, sed requiro fructum: Glossa: datum est res ipsa quae datur, ut nummus, potus, cibus et huiusmodi; fructus autem opera bona, et recta voluntas datoris. Ergo veri praedicatores non debent quaerere ab his quibus praedicant temporales res, et ita non debent de mendicitate vivere. - 4. Again, (2 Cor. xii. 14), St. Paul says, “ I will not be burdensome unto you. I do not seek the things that are yours, but you.” Likewise (Philip. iv. 17) he writes: “Not that I seek the gift, but I seek the fruit.” The Gloss says: “By the gift is meant the things given, such as money, food and the like; the fruit signifies the good works, and the upright intention of the giver.” True preachers then ought not to seek temporal gifts from their hearers. For this reason, the ought not to live by begging. + 4. Again, (2 Cor. xii. 14), St. Paul says, “I will not be burdensome unto you. I do not seek the things that are yours, but you.” Likewise (Philip. iv. 17) he writes: “Not that I seek the gift, but I seek the fruit.” The Gloss says: “By the gift is meant the things given, such as money, food and the like; the fruit signifies the good works, and the upright intention of the giver.” True preachers then ought not to seek temporal gifts from their hearers. For this reason, they ought not to live by begging.
Item. II ad Tim. II, 6, super illud, laborantem agricolam etc., dicit Glossa: vult apostolus ut Evangelista intelligat, quod necessaria sumere ab eis in quibus Deo militat, et quos tanquam cultor vineam exercet, vel tanquam gregem pascit, non est mendicitas, sed potestas. Ex quo patet, quod vivere de Evangelio potestatis est, non mendicitatis. Sed potestas ista non competit nisi praelatis. Ergo alii praedicatores, qui non sunt praelati, non debent per mendicitatem de Evangelio vivere. On the words: “the farmer who labours” etc. (2 Tim. ii.), the Gloss says: “The Apostle desires the evangelist to understand that he may accept that which is needful from them for whom he labours in God, whom he cultivates as a vinedresser tends his vine, and whom he feeds as a shepherd feeds his flock For to act thus is a right; it is not beggary.” Hence we see that those who preach the Gospel have a claim to live by it; and that they are not mendicants when they do so. But this right belongs only to prelates, and, therefore, other preachers ought not to live by the Gospel. @@ -1404,7 +1404,7 @@

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6. St. Paul (1 Cor. ix.), wishing to show that it was lawful for him to accept alms from the faithful, first proves that he is an Apostle. Those who are not Apostles, have no right to live by the charity of the faithful. Preaching religious, not being prelates, are not Apostles; therefore they do not have this right.
Item. I ad Thess. II, 7, super illud, cum possemus oneri esse vobis sicut Christi apostoli, dicit Glossa: intantum gravat pseudo causam, ut se abstinere dicat, cum liceret illi subsidia requirere, ad comprimendum illos quibus nec facultas erat nec pudor poscendi. Apostolicae autem potestatis debitum vocat onus propter pseudoapostolos, qui illud indebite usurpantes, importune a plebibus exigebant. Ex quo patet quod illi praedicatores qui exigunt victum a plebibus, cum non sint apostoli, idest praelati, sunt reputandi pseudoapostoli. Ergo praedicatori qui non est praelatus, non licet mendicare. - 7. The Gloss, commenting on the words of 1 These. ii, “whereas we might have been burthensome to you as the Apostles of Christ,” says: “St. Paul points out the hypocrisy of the false prophets, by refusing to ask for the support which he might justly have claimed, in order to rebuke those who, although they had no right to ask for assistance, blushed not to do so. He speaks of this Apostolic claim to the alms of the faithful as “a burden,” in allusion to the false prophets who unlawfully usurped the right of asking for charity, and importunately urged their pretended claims.” It thus becomes plain that they who require the faithful to support them must, as they are not Apostles, be accounted to be false prophets. Therefore, preachers who are not prelates, ought not to beg. + 7. The Gloss, commenting on the words of 1 Thes. ii, “whereas we might have been burthensome to you as the Apostles of Christ,” says: “St. Paul points out the hypocrisy of the false prophets, by refusing to ask for the support which he might justly have claimed, in order to rebuke those who, although they had no right to ask for assistance, blushed not to do so. He speaks of this Apostolic claim to the alms of the faithful as “a burden,” in allusion to the false prophets who unlawfully usurped the right of asking for charity, and importunately urged their pretended claims.” It thus becomes plain that they who require the faithful to support them must, as they are not Apostles, be accounted to be false prophets. Therefore, preachers who are not prelates ought not to beg.
Item. Praedicatores qui non sunt praelati, victum suum ab his quibus praedicant quaerentes, aut quaerunt quod est eis debitum, aut quod non est eis debitum. Si quod est eis debitum; ergo possunt illud potestative exigere, et per coactionem: quod est manifeste falsum. Si autem non est eis debitum; ergo indebite et iniuste petunt: et sic sunt pseudo reputandi, ut patet per Glossam prius inductam. 8. Preachers who are not prelates either have, or have not, a right to be maintained by those to whom they preach. If they possess this right, they can enforce it by coercion. This idea is, of course, absurd. If they have no right to such support, they are begging unlawfully and unjustly; and they ought, as we have just shown from the Gloss, to be counted as false prophets. @@ -1419,13 +1419,13 @@

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11. Our Lord says to the Pharisees (Matt. xxiii 14), “Woe to you scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites, who devour the houses of widows, praying long prayers.” Those are equally reprehensible who beg for alms, under the pretext of praying, or preaching, or of any other act of the like nature.
Item. Matth. X, 11, dominus discipulis ad praedicandum Missis dicit: in quamcumque civitatem aut castellum intraveritis, interrogate quis in ea sit dignus: Glossa: testimonio vicinorum eligendus est hospes, ne eius infamia praedicator laedatur: et alia Glossa dicit: ille est dignus qui scit se magis accipere gratiam quam dare. Ergo ad minus in talibus reprehensibile videtur quod quandoque ad divites peccatores declinant, et ad eos qui sibi hoc pro gratia non computant. - 12. Christ, when He sent forth His disciples to preach, said to them: “Into whatever city or town you shall enter, enquire who in it is worthy “ (Matt. x. 11). The Gloss says on this verse, “We must choose our host by the testimony of his neighbours, lest his bad life should cause our preaching to be neglected.” Again, “He is worthy to entertain us, who understands that thereby he receives, rather than confers, a favour.” Hence it is highly reprehensible for preachers to condescend to wealthy sinners, and to those who do not esteem their abode with them to be a favour. + 12. Christ, when He sent forth His disciples to preach, said to them: “Into whatever city or town you shall enter, enquire who in it is worthy” (Matt. x. 11). The Gloss says on this verse, “We must choose our host by the testimony of his neighbours, lest his bad life should cause our preaching to be neglected.” Again, “He is worthy to entertain us, who understands that thereby he receives, rather than confers, a favour.” Hence it is highly reprehensible for preachers to condescend to wealthy sinners, and to those who do not esteem their abode with them to be a favour.
Item. Quicunque pro re spirituali aliquid accipit, simoniae crimen incurrit, sive petat sicut Giezi, sive recipiat absque petitione oblatum, sicut Eliseus a Naaman recipere noluit, IV Reg. IV, et sive ante accipiat sive post, ut patet per id quod habetur I, quaest. I, cap. eos. Sed ille qui praedicat populo, spiritualia ministrat. Ergo non licet ei accipere temporalia ab eis ante vel post, neque petendo, neque oblata recipiendo. 13. He who barters a spiritual for a temporal good commits the sin of simony, whether, like Giezi, he asks for a gift, or whether a gift be offered to him, like that which Elisha refused to accept from Naaman (4 Kings v.). The sin is equal, whether it be before or after the work that the gift is accepted (I, q. I. cap. Eos). Now he who preaches to the people exercises a spiritual ministry towards them. Hence a preacher should not accept their temporal gifts, whether he asks for them, or whether they offer them without being asked.
Item. I ad Thess. ult.: ab omni specie mala abstinete vos. Glossa: si quis speciem mali praetendit, etsi non sit malum, nolite praecipitanter agere. Sed quod praedicator temporalia quaerat ab his quibus praedicat, speciem mali praetendit: unde II ad Cor. ult., super illud, non quaero quae vestra sunt, sed vos, dicit Glossa: non quaerebat apostolus datum, sed fructum, ne quasi venditor Evangelii putaretur. Ergo praedicatores non debent ab his quibus praedicant mendicando, victum quaerere. - 14. St. Paul says: “From all appearance of evil refrain yourselves” (1 Thes. v. 22). The Gloss adds: “If something appears to be wrong, although it be not actually wrong, do not do it impulsively.” Now it has a bad appearance for a preacher to seek material assistance from those to whom he preaches. Hence St. Paul said: “I seek not those things which are yours, but you” (2 Cor. xii). For, as the Gloss observes, “ the Apostle, lest he might seem to sell the Gospel, desired not gifts, but fruit.” In like manner, preachers ought not to beg for a livelihood from those to whom they preach. + 14. St. Paul says: “From all appearance of evil refrain yourselves” (1 Thes. v. 22). The Gloss adds: “If something appears to be wrong, although it be not actually wrong, do not do it impulsively.” Now it has a bad appearance for a preacher to seek material assistance from those to whom he preaches. Hence St. Paul said: “I seek not those things which are yours, but you” (2 Cor. xii). For, as the Gloss observes, “the Apostle, lest he might seem to sell the Gospel, desired not gifts, but fruit.” In like manner, preachers ought not to beg for a livelihood from those to whom they preach.
Ulterius nituntur ostendere, quod talibus etiam eleemosynae non sunt dandae. 4 Our opponents, also, attempt to prove that alms ought not to be given to religious. @@ -1437,7 +1437,7 @@

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2. St. Augustine writes to Vincent the Donatist that “it is better to deprive a hungry man of food, than to give bread to one who, being sure of a livelihood, will forsake justice. For by succouring such a one, we connive at his evildoing.” Now he who will not work for his living when he is able, or he who can get food in a lawful manner without begging and yet prefers to beg, acts unjustly. Hence alms should not be bestowed upon him.
Item. Luc. VI, 30, super illud, omni petenti te tribue, Glossa: rem, vel correctionem; et similiter Matth. V, 42, qui petit a te, da ei, dicit Glossa: da ei, ita scilicet ut nec tibi noceat, nec alii. Pensanda est enim iustitia. Ita enim omni petenti dabis, etsi non id quod petit, sed melius, cum iniuste petentem correxeris. Sed ille qui potest manibus laborare, si petat sibi eleemosynam dari, iniuste petit, ut probatum est. Ergo magis debet sibi dari correctio quam res petita, ut scilicet ab iniusta petitione avertatur. - 3. The Gloss on the words, “ Give to every one who asks of you,” (Luke vi.) says, “Give him what he wants or a reproof.” Again, on the words, “Give to him who asks you” (Matt. v.), the Gloss says: “Give in such a way as to injure neither yourself nor another. For justice should be balanced. Thus, you should give to every one who asks you, if not what he asks for, then some better thing, namely, a rebuke for asking wrongfully.” Now as we have shown, he who prefers begging to manual labour begs unjustly; and he deserves reproof rather than alms. + 3. The Gloss on the words, “Give to every one who asks of you,” (Luke vi.) says, “Give him what he wants or a reproof.” Again, on the words, “Give to him who asks you” (Matt. v.), the Gloss says: “Give in such a way as to injure neither yourself nor another. For justice should be balanced. Thus, you should give to every one who asks you, if not what he asks for, then some better thing, namely, a rebuke for asking wrongfully.” Now as we have shown, he who prefers begging to manual labour begs unjustly; and he deserves reproof rather than alms.
Item. Augustinus ad Vincentium Donatistam: saepe mali persecuti sunt bonos, et boni malos; illi nocendo per iniustitiam, et illi consulendo per disciplinam. Ergo boni possunt persequi malos causa disciplinae. Sed quaedam persecutio est ut panis alicui subtrahatur. Ergo aliquibus qui sunt mali, debet panis subtrahi, ut corrigantur; et praecipue si in pane petendo peccent. Sed validi mendicantes peccant, etiam si praedicent, ut probatum est. Ergo talibus panis debet subtrahi. 4. St. Augustine, in his letter to the Donatist Vincent, says, “The evil have often persecuted the good, and the good have persecuted the evil. The evil persecuted the good by injustice; and the good persecute the bad by correction.” Hence for the sake of correction, the good may persecute the bad; and to deprive them of food is a species of correction. Now sturdy beggars sin, even though they preach; and therefore, they ought to be deprived of food. @@ -1487,7 +1487,7 @@

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2. In I. q. II. Cap. Sacerdos, it is laid down that “he who has either renounced all his property in favour of his kinsfolk, or has distributed it to the poor, or given it to the Church, and has thus, for love of poverty, made himself poor, is not only free from the guilt of covetousness if he accept assistance from the faithful; but that he may laudably do so, in order thereby to assist the poor, while he himself lives in voluntary poverty.” It is thus evident that a man who has renounced all things for Christ, may live on the charity of the faithful.
Item. Potius debet homo bonum praetermittere quod sine peccato praetermitti potest, quam aliquod peccatum committere. Si ergo illi qui sunt validi corpore, peccant eleemosynas recipiendo, potius debent omnes alias occupationes quantumcumque bonas dimittere, quam eleemosynas accipere. Hoc autem apparet esse falsum, per hoc quod dicit Augustinus in Lib. de operibus Monach., quod illi servi Dei qui etiam manibus operantur, ad ea discenda quae memoriter recolant, debent habere seposita tempora, quibus scilicet a labore manuum vacent. Ad hoc enim et illa bona opera fidelium subsidio supplendorum necessariorum deesse non debent, ut horae quibus ad erudiendum animum ita vacatur, ut illa corporalia opera geri non possint, non opprimant egestate. Ex quo etiam patet quod Augustinus non intendit quod monachi laborent manibus ad victum quaerendum totum ex labore manuum: quia si hoc facerent, non relinqueretur aliquod tempus vacuum ad spiritualia opera. - 3. A man is bound rather to sacrifice some good, which he may relinquish without sin, than to commit sin. If then they who are in robust health sin by taking alms, they ought to relinquish every other occupation, however good, rather than accept charity. This proposition is false, as we see by the words of St. Augustine in De opere monachorum. The Saint says that “those servants of God who work with their hands ought to have some time set apart in which to rest from labour, and to commit to memory what they ought to know. They ought, he says, to be assisted by the good offices of the faithful, in order that at the times devoted to learning, they may dot be depressed by want.” St. Augustine thus shows that, in his opinion, monks ought not to be entirely dependent on labour for their daily bread; otherwise no opportunity would be afforded them for spiritual exercises. + 3. A man is bound rather to sacrifice some good, which he may relinquish without sin, than to commit sin. If then they who are in robust health sin by taking alms, they ought to relinquish every other occupation, however good, rather than accept charity. This proposition is false, as we see by the words of St. Augustine in De opere monachorum. The Saint says that “those servants of God who work with their hands ought to have some time set apart in which to rest from labour, and to commit to memory what they ought to know. They ought, he says, to be assisted by the good offices of the faithful, in order that at the times devoted to learning, they may not be depressed by want.” St. Augustine thus shows that, in his opinion, monks ought not to be entirely dependent on labour for their daily bread; otherwise no opportunity would be afforded them for spiritual exercises.
Item. Augustinus in eodem Lib. loquens de aliquo divite qui bona sua alicui monasterio tribuit, dicit, quod bene facit operando, ut aliis exemplum det, quamvis ipsa res communis monasterii fratrum debeat ei rependere vicem ut vitam eius sustentet. Quod quidem si nolit, manibus operari, quis eum audeat cogere? Ex quo patet quod ille qui bona sua monasterio dat, potest sine labore manuum de rebus monasterii vivere. Sed, sicut idem Augustinus statim subiungit, cum omnium Christianorum sit una respublica, non differt ubicunque sua reliquerit, vel a quibuscunque accipiat necessaria vitae. Ergo illi qui omnia quae habebant, reliquerunt propter Christum, possunt a quibuscunque accipere unde vivant. 4. In the same work, St. Augustine, referring to a certain rich man who had given all his wealth to a monastery, says that “he performed a good work by labouring with his hands, in order to give an example; although, by the benefit which he had conferred on the community, he had a right to be supported by it. For, had he been unwilling to work, who would have dared to urge him to do so?” Hence we see that he who bestows his substance on a monastery, has a right to live in that monastery without manual labour. But the Saint further remarks that as all Christians form one republic, it is of no consequence to which section of the commonwealth each one gives his money, nor from whom he derives support. Hence they who have left all things for Christ may accept the necessities of life from anyone. @@ -1514,13 +1514,13 @@

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1. St. Paul writes to the Corinthians (1 Cor. ix. 7), “Who ever serves as a soldier at his own charges? Who plants a vineyard and does not eat of its fruit? Who feeds the flock and does not eat of the milk of the flock?” St. Paul alleges these examples (as the Gloss remarks) in order to prove that the Apostles did not claim more than was their due if, according to the precept of our Lord, they who preached the Gospel lived by it, and likewise freely accepted the charity of those to whom they freely ministered. Now it is quite certain that a soldier, and a vinedresser, and a herdsman, ought to live by the fruit of their toil. Therefore, as not only prelates, but all preachers, labour to announce the Gospel, they have a right to accept the means of subsistence from those among whom they labour.
Item. Apostolus probat quod poterant apostoli temporalia accipere ab eis quibus praedicabant, quia eis spiritualia seminabant: quia qui dat magna, non est mirum si accipiat parva: unde dicit in eodem cap.: si nos vobis spiritualia seminamus, magnum est, si carnalia vestra metamus? Sed eadem spiritualia quae praedicant praelati, praedicant alii ex eorum auctoritate. Ergo etiam ipsi possunt ab his quibus praedicant, carnalia accipere, unde vivant. - 2. St. Paul likewise maintains that the Apostles has a right to accept temporal assistance from those to whom they ministered spiritual good. For it is not out of order for him who gives great things to receive small things in exchange. To quote St. Paul’s own words, “If we have sown for you spiritual things, is it a great matter if we reap your carnal things? (1 Cor. ix. 2). “Now the spiritual truths taught by prelates are proclaimed, equally by all preachers bearing an episcopal commission. There is therefore no reason why they, as well as prelates, should not accept material means of support. + 2. St. Paul likewise maintains that the Apostles have a right to accept temporal assistance from those to whom they ministered spiritual good. For it is not out of order for him who gives great things to receive small things in exchange. To quote St. Paul’s own words, “If we have sown for you spiritual things, is it a great matter if we reap your carnal things? (1 Cor. ix. 2). “Now the spiritual truths taught by prelates are proclaimed, equally by all preachers bearing an episcopal commission. There is therefore no reason why they, as well as prelates, should not accept material means of support.
Item. Eodem cap., dicit apostolus: dominus ordinavit his qui Evangelium annuntiant, de Evangelio vivere: Glossa: hoc rationabiliter fecit, ut expeditiores sint ad praedicandum verbum Dei. Sed omnes qui ad praedicandum deputantur, oportet esse expeditos ad praedicandum, sive sint praelati, sive auctoritate praelatorum praedicent. Ergo ad eos etiam qui non sunt praelati, ordinatio domini se extendit, ut de Evangelio vivant: quod patet etiam ex ipsis verbis apostoli. Non enim dicit, qui habent auctoritatem ordinariam, sed simpliciter qui annuntiant. 3. In the first Chapter of the Epistle just quoted, St. Paul likewise says: “The Lord has ordained that they who preach the Gospel should also live by the Gospel.” The Gloss observes: “The reason why this command was given was to render preachers more diligent in their office. “Now all (not only prelates) whose duty it is to preach ought to be zealous in so doing. Therefore, the rule laid down by our Lord applies not only to prelates, but to all who preach the word of God. This is plain by the very words of St. Paul. He does not say, “all who have ordinary authority to preach,” but, “those who preach the Gospel.”
Item. Luc. X, 7, dominus discipulis Missis ad praedicandum dicit: in eadem domo manete edentes et bibentes quae apud illos sunt: dignus est enim operarius mercede sua. Ex quo patet quod praedicatori quasi merces debetur victus ab his quibus praedicat, ut patet per Glossam, quae ibidem dicit: nota, quod uni operi praedicatorum duae mercedes debentur; una in via, quae nos in labore sustentat; alia in patria, quae nos in resurrectione remunerat. Sed merces non debetur potestati vel auctoritati vel habitui, sed actui, quia solis actibus meremur: unde etiam philosophus in 1 Ethic. dicit: quemadmodum in Olympiadibus non optimi et fortissimi coronantur, sed agonizantes ita et eorum qui in vita bonorum, operantes recte, illustres fiunt. Et hoc est etiam quod apostolus dicit II Tim. II, 5: non coronabitur nisi qui legitime certaverit. Ergo illi qui praedicant, sive sint praelati, sive non, dummodo licite praedicent, possunt licite de Evangelio vivere. - 4. When our Lord sent forth His disciples to preach, He said: “Remain in the same house, eating and drinking such things as they have. For the labourer is worthy of his hire.” This passage proves that preachers earn their living, as payment due to them, from those to whom they preach The following observation from, the Gloss renders this proposition still more clear. “A preacher is entitled to two rewards for his one work. One reward he receives on earth, in the support afforded to him in his labour; the other reward awaits him in heaven, in a glorious resurrection.” Now reward is due not to power, nor to authority, nor to habit, but to deed; for deeds alone are meritorious. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “As in the Olympian games, the crown was given not to the strongest nor to the noblest, but to those who fought most strenuously and who, therefore, were victorious; so they are rightly deemed the most illustrious who in life have done the best and bravest deeds.” St, Paul again says: “he... is not crowned, unless he strives lawfully.” They, therefore, whether prelates or not, who legitimately preach the Gospel, may lawfully live by it (2 Tim. 11. 5). + 4. When our Lord sent forth His disciples to preach, He said: “Remain in the same house, eating and drinking such things as they have. For the labourer is worthy of his hire.” This passage proves that preachers earn their living, as payment due to them, from those to whom they preach. The following observation from the Gloss renders this proposition still more clear. “A preacher is entitled to two rewards for his one work. One reward he receives on earth, in the support afforded to him in his labour; the other reward awaits him in heaven, in a glorious resurrection.” Now reward is due not to power, nor to authority, nor to habit, but to deed; for deeds alone are meritorious. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “As in the Olympian games, the crown was given not to the strongest nor to the noblest, but to those who fought most strenuously and who, therefore, were victorious; so they are rightly deemed the most illustrious who in life have done the best and bravest deeds.” St, Paul again says: “he... is not crowned, unless he strives lawfully.” They, therefore, whether prelates or not, who legitimately preach the Gospel, may lawfully live by it (2 Tim. 11. 5).
Item. Magis laborant in Evangelio illi qui praedicant missi a praelatis, quam illi ex quorum collegio mittuntur, vel qui eos mittunt de voluntate praelatorum. Sed illi ex quorum collegio praedicatores mittuntur possunt de eleemosynis vivere, quamvis non sint praelati, acceptis ab his quibus Evangelium praedicatur: quod patet ex hoc quod dicitur Rom. XV, 26-27: probaverunt Macedones et Achaici collationem aliquam facere in pauperes sanctorum qui sunt Ierusalem. Placuit enim illis, et debitores sunt eorum. Nam si spiritualium eorum participes facti sunt gentiles: Glossa: Iudaeorum, qui miserunt eis praedicatores a Ierosolymis, debent et in carnalibus ministrare eis. Isti autem pauperes non possunt intelligi tantum apostoli; quia non oportebat pro apostolis solis, qui duodecim erant, et parvo victu contenti, facere collectas per omnes Ecclesias; et praecipue cum ipsimet victum acciperent ab his quibus praedicabant, ut patet I Cor. IX, 11 ss. Ergo multo fortius illi qui praedicant, quamvis non sint praelati, sed a praelatis missi, possunt de Evangelio vivere. 5. They who are sent by bishops to preach, labour more than do the others of the order from which they are sent, or than they who, at the bidding of a bishop, send them. But it is lawful for the rest of an order to live on the alms given to its preachers, even though those preachers be not prelates. This is proved by the following words: “It has pleased them of Macedonia and Achaia to make a contribution for the poor saints that are in Jerusalem. For it has pleased them, and they are their debtors. For, if the Gentiles have been made partakers of their spiritual things” (i.e., according to the Gloss, “partakers of the spiritual advantages of the Jews who had sent them preachers from Jerusalem”), “they ought also in carnal things to minister to them” (Rom xv. 26). Now by the “poor” of whom St. Paul here speaks, we cannot understand the Apostles. For, as they were only twelve in number, and were content with little, they did not need a collection to be made for them in all the Churches, especially as we know that they were supported by those to whom they preached (1 Cor. ix). Hence all preachers, even though they are not bishops, but are sent by bishops, have a right to live by the Gospel. @@ -1532,10 +1532,10 @@

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7. He who gives to another gratis what he is not obliged to give, has as good a right to take a reward as he who does merely what he is obliged to do. Now it is a bounden duty for bishops to minister to their flocks in spiritual matters. For, as St. Paul says: “If I preach the Gospel, it is no glory to me, for an obligation lies on me; for woe to me if I do not preach the Gospel” (1 Cor. ix, 16). They therefore who are not prelates, and have not the responsibility of a flock, are justified in accepting material assistance from those to whom they preach.
Item. Augustinus dicit in Lib. de operibus Monach.: si Evangelistae sunt, religiosi, fateor quod habent potestatem, vivendi de sumptibus fidelium. Sed non solum praelati sunt Evangelistae, sed omnes qui evangelizare possunt, etiam diacones: unde Eph. IV, 11, apostolus dicit: dedit quidem quosdam apostolos, quosdam autem prophetas, alios Evangelistas, alios autem pastores et doctores; distinguens Evangelistas a pastoribus et apostolis, per quos praelati intelliguntur. Ergo quicunque Evangelium praedicant, sive sint praelati, sive non, possunt de Evangelio vivere. - 8. St. Augustine says in De opere monachorum: “ If they (i.e., religious) are preachers of the Gospel, I admit their right,” i.e. to live on the alms of the faithful. But these words apply not only to prelates, but to all who can preach, even to deacons. Hence St. Paul says (Eph. iv. 11): “He gave some Apostles, and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some others pastors and doctors.” The Apostle thus draws a distinction between Evangelists and Pastors and Apostles, by which term we are to understand prelates. Hence all preachers, be they prelates or not, may live by the Gospel. + 8. St. Augustine says in De opere monachorum: “If they (i.e., religious) are preachers of the Gospel, I admit their right,” i.e. to live on the alms of the faithful. But these words apply not only to prelates, but to all who can preach, even to deacons. Hence St. Paul says (Eph. iv. 11): “He gave some Apostles, and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some others pastors and doctors.” The Apostle thus draws a distinction between Evangelists and Pastors and Apostles, by which term we are to understand prelates. Hence all preachers, be they prelates or not, may live by the Gospel.
Item. Inter omnes ecclesiasticas occupationes dignior est occupatio eorum qui verbum Dei annuntiant: unde ad hoc se Christus venisse monstrat Marc. II: ad hoc etiam missus demonstratur Isai. LXI, 1: ad evangelizandum pauperibus misit me: et ad hoc etiam Paulus missum se dicit I Cor. I, 17: non enim misit me Christus baptizare, sed evangelizare. Sed illi qui occupationibus ecclesiasticis implicantur, non debent manibus laborare, sed de rebus Ecclesiae vivere, ut dicit Augustinus in Lib. de operibus Monach., de se ipso loquens. Ergo multo fortius illi qui occupantur in praedicatione verbi Dei, possunt sine labore manuum de Evangelio vivere. - 9. Preaching is the noblest of all ecclesiastical functions.“Our Lord declared that this was the purpose of His coming into the world. “For this was I sent” (Luke iv. 43). Isaiah also, speaking in the person of Christ, says: “He sent me to preach to the meek” (Isa. lxi. 1). St. Paul likewise says: “Christ sent me not to baptise, but to preach the Gospel” (1 Cor. i. 17). Now they who are engaged in the business of the Church ought not to work with their hands, but to live on the property of the Church, as St. Augustine says (De opere Monach.), speaking of himself. This rule applies much more forcibly to those engaged in preaching, who have every right to live by the Gospel, instead of by manual labour. + 9. Preaching is the noblest of all ecclesiastical functions. Our Lord declared that this was the purpose of His coming into the world. “For this was I sent” (Luke iv. 43). Isaiah also, speaking in the person of Christ, says: “He sent me to preach to the meek” (Isa. lxi. 1). St. Paul likewise says: “Christ sent me not to baptise, but to preach the Gospel” (1 Cor. i. 17). Now they who are engaged in the business of the Church ought not to work with their hands, but to live on the property of the Church, as St. Augustine says (De opere Monach.), speaking of himself. This rule applies much more forcibly to those engaged in preaching, who have every right to live by the Gospel, instead of by manual labour.
Item. Utilius est praedicationis officium quam advocationis. Sed advocati qui licite exercent advocationis officium, possunt de suo labore et officio vivere. Ergo multo fortius praedicatores possunt vivere de Evangelio, sive sint praelati, sive non, dummodo licite praedicent. 10. The office of a preacher is more useful to the community than is that of a lawyer. But lawyers may, from the legitimate exercise of their profession, earn a livelihood. Therefore, preachers, may, if their preaching be authorised, live by means of it, whether they be prelates or not. @@ -1559,16 +1559,16 @@

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2. In Ps. lxix. 6, we find the words: “But I am needy and poor.” On which the Gloss says: “I am needy”; i.e., begging, and poor, i.e., “I do not have the means to support myself.” He who speaks thus owns no material wealth; and, having spiritual riches, he ever desires more, craves for it, and receives it.
Item. In alio Psalmo: persecutus est hominem inopem et mendicum. Glossa: scilicet Christum, pauperes persequi sola saevitia est: alii vero pro divitiis vel honoribus interdum huiusmodi patiuntur. Istae duae ultimae Glossae manifeste ostendunt, quod de mendicitate rerum temporalium praedicta verba intelligere oportet. - 3. In Ps. lviii. 6 we read: “He persecutes the poor man and the beggar,” i.e. “ Christ,” as the Gloss expounds it. Another commentary says: “It is pure malice to persecute the poor. Rich men may sometimes suffer persecution on account of their position or wealth.” Both these commentaries show that the words of the Psalm are understood as being an allusion to material poverty. + 3. In Ps. lviii. 6 we read: “He persecutes the poor man and the beggar,” i.e. “Christ,” as the Gloss expounds it. Another commentary says: “It is pure malice to persecute the poor. Rich men may sometimes suffer persecution on account of their position or wealth.” Both these commentaries show that the words of the Psalm are understood as being an allusion to material poverty.
Item. II ad Cor. VIII, 9: scitis gratiam domini nostri Iesu Christi, quoniam cum dives esset pro vobis egenus factus est. Glossa: in mundo. Et quod in hoc Christus sit imitandus, patet per Glossam, quae ibidem dicit: nemo se contemnat. Pauper in cella, dives in conscientia, securior dormit in terra quam dives in purpura. Non ergo expavescas cum tua mendicitate ad illum accedere qui indutus est tua paupertate. - 4. St. Paul says (2 Cor. viii. 9): You know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ that, being rich, He became poor for your sakes,” i.e., “in the world” (Gloss). That the poverty of Christ ought to be imitated is proved by the Gloss in the following words: “Let no one despise himself. He who inhabits a poor dwelling is rich in conscience, and he sleeps more peacefully on the ground, than the wealthy man can rest amidst his gold and purple. Fear not then in your misery, to approach Him who has put on our poverty.” + 4. St. Paul says (2 Cor. viii. 9): “You know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ that, being rich, He became poor for your sakes,” i.e., “in the world” (Gloss). That the poverty of Christ ought to be imitated is proved by the Gloss in the following words: “Let no one despise himself. He who inhabits a poor dwelling is rich in conscience, and he sleeps more peacefully on the ground, than the wealthy man can rest amidst his gold and purple. Fear not then in your misery, to approach Him who has put on our poverty.”
Item. Quod dominus victum petierit, expresse habetur Luc. XIX, 5, ubi dominus dixit ad Zachaeum: Zachaee, festinans descende, quia hodie in domo tua oportet me manere. Glossa: non invitatus invitat: qui etsi nondum audierat vocem invitantis, audierat affectum. - 5. our Lord asked for hospitality. We know this by His words to Zacchaeus: “ Come down quickly; for today I must abide in your house” (Luke xix. 5). The Gloss says: “He offers Himself, although He has not been invited. For He knew the disposition of Zacchaeus’ heart, although he had uttered no word of invitation. + 5. our Lord asked for hospitality. We know this by His words to Zacchaeus: “Come down quickly; for today I must abide in your house” (Luke xix. 5). The Gloss says: “He offers Himself, although He has not been invited. For He knew the disposition of Zacchaeus’ heart, although he had uttered no word of invitation.
Item. Marc. XI, 11: circumspectis omnibus, cum iam vespera esset et cetera. Glossa: circumspectis omnibus, si quis hospitio susciperet. Tantae paupertatis fuit, et ita nulli adulatus, ut in tanta urbe nullum hospitium inveniret. Ex quo patet quod Christus ita pauper erat ut hospitium conducere non posset; sed ab aliis hospitium petebat et expectabat. Unde blasphemum est dicere, quod non liceat mendicare. - 6. We read in St. Mark xi. “Having viewed all things round about, when now the eventide was come.” The Gloss understands these words to mean: “ having looked all around Him to see if any would offer Him hospitality. For He was so poor and so carefully avoided flattering any man that He found none to shelter Him in all that large city.” Hence we see that the poverty of our Lord was so extreme that He possessed nothing with which to hire a lodging, but sought and hoped for hospitality from others. It is, therefore, blasphemous to say that it is unlawful to beg. + 6. We read in St. Mark xi. “Having viewed all things round about, when now the eventide was come.” The Gloss understands these words to mean: “having looked all around Him to see if any would offer Him hospitality. For He was so poor and so carefully avoided flattering any man that He found none to shelter Him in all that large city.” Hence we see that the poverty of our Lord was so extreme that He possessed nothing with which to hire a lodging, but sought and hoped for hospitality from others. It is, therefore, blasphemous to say that it is unlawful to beg.
Item, Ieronymus ad Furiam de viduitate servanda: quotiescumque manum extendis Christum cogita, cave ne mendicante domino tuo alienas divitias augeas; ex quo patet quod Christus mendicavit. 7. [Again, Jerome wrote to Furia about staying a widow: "Whenever you extend your hand, think of Christ. Beware of building up the riches of others, while your Lord is begging." From this it is clear that Christ begged. @@ -1607,7 +1607,7 @@

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4 We shall now prove that it is right to give alms to mendicant religious.
Primo per id quod habetur III Canon. Ioan.: carissime, fideliter facis quidquid operaris in fratres et hoc in peregrinos: et de quibus loquatur subiungit: pro nomine enim eius profecti sunt. Glossa: alienati a rebus propriis. Et infra: nos ergo debemus suscipere huiusmodi. Glossa: Ioannes omnia dimiserat et se divitibus connumerat, ut alacriores reddat et promptiores ad miserandum pauperibus. Ergo commendabile est dare eleemosynas illis qui pro nomine Christi sine rebus propriis vivunt. - 1. St. John says (3 John), “Dearly beloved, do faithfully whatever you do for the brethrens and for strangers.” He immediately points out to whom he refers by saying: “For his name they went out” (i.e., “ leaving their own possessions,” Gloss). And again, “We, therefore, ought to receive such.” The Gloss here remarks: “John had renounced all things, but he speaks of himself as belonging to the number of the rich, in order to make those whom he addresses more prompt and more ready in helping the needy.” Hence it is praiseworthy to give alms to those who, for the love of Christ, live without possessions of their own. + 1. St. John says (3 John), “Dearly beloved, do faithfully whatever you do for the brethrens and for strangers.” He immediately points out to whom he refers by saying: “For his name they went out” (i.e., “leaving their own possessions,” Gloss). And again, “We, therefore, ought to receive such.” The Gloss here remarks: “John had renounced all things, but he speaks of himself as belonging to the number of the rich, in order to make those whom he addresses more prompt and more ready in helping the needy.” Hence it is praiseworthy to give alms to those who, for the love of Christ, live without possessions of their own.
Item. Matth. X, 41: qui recipit iustum in nomine iusti. Glossa: pro eo quod nominatur iustus, mercedem iusti accipiet. Glossa: dicit ergo aliquis: ergo et pseudoprophetam et Iudam proditorem suscipimus? Hoc dominus providens, dixit personas non esse recipiendas, sed nomina; et mercede non carere suscipientem, licet indignus sit qui suscipitur. Ex quo patet quod eleemosynae sunt dandae his qui habent nomen sanctitatis, etiam si indigni sunt. 2. We read in Matt. x. 41, “He who receives a just man in the name of a just man shall receive the reward of a just man.” The Gloss remarks that “on this account he is called just.” The Gloss also adds, “Someone may therefore say: ‘We shall thus receive false prophets, and the traitor Judas.’ But the Lord, foreseeing this objection, says not that persons are to be received but their names; and that he who receives another shall not be deprived of a reward on account of the unworthiness of the object of his charity.” Hence we must conclude that alms are to be given to those who bear, even though unjustly, the name of sanctity. @@ -1694,10 +1694,10 @@

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2 We must now proceed to answer the arguments of those who maintain that it is not lawful to seek alms by begging.
Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod cum dicitur omnino indigens et mendicus non erit inter vos, non prohibetur quin aliquis statum paupertatis vel mendicitatis assumat; sed quod non ita derelinquatur ab aliis, ut in talem statum incidat, in quo eum oporteat ex necessitate mendicare: et hoc patet per id quod praecedit (v. 3): civem et propinquum repetendi non habes potestatem; et Glossa ibi dicit: licet omnes proximi mei sint, illis tamen maxime misericordia impendenda est qui Christi nobiscum sunt membra. Ex quo patet quod ubi praecipitur misericordia, non prohibetur mendicitas. - 1. The words: “ There shall be no poor man and no beggar amongst you,” do not forbid persons to embrace the condition of poverty and mendicity. These words prohibit men to leave their neighbours in a condition of misery, which forces them to beg. This is proved by the words. occurring in the same chapter of Deuteronomy: “of your countrymen and neighbour you shall not have power to demand it again.” On these words, the Gloss observes: “Although all men be our neighbours, we are chiefly bound to show mercy to those who, together with ourselves, are the members of Christ.” Hence although charity is enjoined, mendicity is not forbidden. + 1. The words: “There shall be no poor man and no beggar amongst you,” do not forbid persons to embrace the condition of poverty and mendicity. These words prohibit men to leave their neighbours in a condition of misery, which forces them to beg. This is proved by the words. occurring in the same chapter of Deuteronomy: “of your countrymen and neighbour you shall not have power to demand it again.” On these words, the Gloss observes: “Although all men be our neighbours, we are chiefly bound to show mercy to those who, together with ourselves, are the members of Christ.” Hence although charity is enjoined, mendicity is not forbidden.
Ad secundum dicendum, quod Glossa exponit de pane spirituali, unde dicit: non vidi iustum derelictum a Deo, nec semen eius quaerens panem spiritualem, idest indigere pane verbi Dei, quia verbum Dei semper cum eo est. Si tamen de pane materiali intelligatur, intelligendum est quod iusti non quaerunt panem ex necessitate quasi derelicti a Deo, cum dicatur Heb. ult.: non te deseram neque derelinquam. Non tamen excluditur quin illi qui sunt iusti, voluntarie se possint exponere paupertati propter Christum; quod tamen forte temporibus Psalmistae adhuc factum non erat, quia perfectionis opera tempori gratiae servabantur. - 2. The Gloss interprets the words, “ I have not seen the just man forsaken by God,” to mean: “I have not seen the seed of the just man perishing for want of spiritual food, i.e. the Word of God; for the Word of God is always with him.” But, if this text be understood to refer to material bread, it means that the just are not reduced to beggary by necessity, or because God has deserted them; since it is said: “I will not leave you nor forsake you” (Hebr. xvi. 5). The words do not mean that just men may not, for love of God, embrace poverty, although they did not do so in the days of the Psalmist. For such works of perfection were reserved for the time of Grace. + 2. The Gloss interprets the words, “I have not seen the just man forsaken by God,” to mean: “I have not seen the seed of the just man perishing for want of spiritual food, i.e. the Word of God; for the Word of God is always with him.” But, if this text be understood to refer to material bread, it means that the just are not reduced to beggary by necessity, or because God has deserted them; since it is said: “I will not leave you nor forsake you” (Hebr. xvi. 5). The words do not mean that just men may not, for love of God, embrace poverty, although they did not do so in the days of the Psalmist. For such works of perfection were reserved for the time of Grace.
Ad tertium dicendum, quod non est inconveniens quod illud quod alicui in poenam infligitur, ab alio voluntarie assumptum in iustitiam vertatur; sicut aliqui propter scelera quae committunt, rebus suis spoliantur; et tamen ad perfectionem iustitiae pertinet quod aliquis rebus propriis se spoliet propter Christum. Et similiter mendicitas quamvis aliquibus malefactoribus inducatur a Deo in poenam, nihil tamen prohibet quin voluntarie assumpta propter Christum, ad perfectionem iustitiae pertineat. 3. It is not unfitting that what indicted on one man as a penalty may be, in another, a self-imposed work of justice. Criminals have their goods confiscated as a legal punishment; but this is no reason why other men may not despoil themselves of their possessions for the love of God. Again, beggary may fall upon sinners as a Divine chastisement; but this is no reason why mendicity, voluntarily embraced for Christ, should not be a work of justice. @@ -1727,7 +1727,7 @@

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3 We shall next undertake to answer, in their proper order, the arguments of those who hold that religious who preach may not live on charity, or beg for alms.
Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod quamvis praedicatores de eleemosynis vivant, non tamen sequitur quod adulentur. Quamvis enim qui sine adulatione praedicant, non habeant gratiam apud malos, qui dicuntur homines et carnales; habent tamen gratiam apud bonos: et ideo quandoque si sine adulatione praedicant, coguntur defectus multos pati, quando scilicet in illos incidunt apud quos sine adulatione gratiam habere non possunt; quandoque autem sine egestate sunt, quando in illos incidunt quorum sine adulatione gratiam habent. Unde et Christus hospitium quandoque habere non poterat: quandoque etiam invitabatur a multis: et mulieres quae eum sequebantur, de suis facultatibus ei ministrabant, ut dicitur Luc. VIII, 3. Ita etiam et apostoli quandoque multas penurias sustinebant, quandoque autem abundabant, in utrisque modeste se habentes. Philip. ult., 12: scio abundare et penuriam pati. Et has etiam vicissitudines pauperes praedicatores nostri temporis experiuntur frequenter. - 1. It by no means follows that because preachers live on alms, they must necessarily be flatterers. When they preach without flattery, they often find but small favour among wicked and carnal-minded men, although they are approved of by the good; in face, sometimes they have to suffer at the hands of those whose favour they could not win without adulation. At other times they are well received by good men who do not wish to be flattered. They thus resemble Lord who, at times, had no roof to shelter Him, and at other times was entertained by many and who received the ministry of women who followed Him, as we read in Luke (viii.). Thus likewise the Apostles sometimes endured great distress; and at other times they were well supplied, behaving with discretion under both circumstances. “I know,” says St. Paul (Phil. iv. 12), “ how to abound and how to suffer want.” Vicissitudes of this description are the common experience of poor preachers in our own days. + 1. It by no means follows that because preachers live on alms, they must necessarily be flatterers. When they preach without flattery, they often find but small favour among wicked and carnal-minded men, although they are approved of by the good; in face, sometimes they have to suffer at the hands of those whose favour they could not win without adulation. At other times they are well received by good men who do not wish to be flattered. They thus resemble Lord who, at times, had no roof to shelter Him, and at other times was entertained by many and who received the ministry of women who followed Him, as we read in Luke (viii.). Thus likewise the Apostles sometimes endured great distress; and at other times they were well supplied, behaving with discretion under both circumstances. “I know,” says St. Paul (Phil. iv. 12), “how to abound and how to suffer want.” Vicissitudes of this description are the common experience of poor preachers in our own days.
Ad secundum dicendum, quod praedicatores eleemosynas petentes non faciunt aliquid in quo sit occasio avaritiae. Avaritia enim est immoderatus amor habendi: velle autem habere victum et vestitum ad necessitatem, non est immoderatum. I Tim. ult.: habentes alimenta et quibus tegamur, his contenti simus. Unde pauperes qui petunt necessaria victus, et vestitus, et aliorum quae humana vita exigit, non sunt in aliqua occasione avaritiae. 2. Preachers, by asking for charity, do nothing that can be an occasion of avarice. Avarice is an inordinate love of possessing. It is not inordinate to wish to have necessary food and clothing. “Having what to eat, and wherewith to be clothed, with these we are content” (1 Tim. vi. 8). Hence poor men are not, by begging for the necessities of life, exposed to any danger of avarice. @@ -1742,7 +1742,7 @@

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5. The fifth objection is answered by saying that St. Paul wished to show that he had as good a right as the other Apostles to receive the donations of the faithful. And in order to make good this point, he began by proving that he was an Apostle just like the other Apostles.
Ad sextum dicendum, quod pseudoapostoli usurpabant sibi indebite sumptus fidelium tripliciter. Primo quia falsa praedicabant, et contra evangelicam doctrinam, ut patet Rom. ult. super illud, rogamus autem vos fratres etc.: quod Glossa de pseudoapostolis exponit, qui credentes cogebant iudaizare. Secundo quia praedicabant non missi a veris apostolis: unde apostolus vocat eos ad Galat. II, 4, subintrantes. Tertio quia auctoritative exigebant ac si essent apostoli. Et haec tria deficiunt in proposito: unde ratio non valet. - 6. The false apostles were unjust usurpers when they accepted the contributions of the faithful. Three reasons prove this. First, they taught a doctrine that was false and contrary to the Gospel. For, as the Gloss observes, on the words “we likewise beseech you, brethren” (Rom. xvi.), “ they forced believers to follow Jewish rites.” Secondly, they preached without any commission from the true Apostles. Therefore St. Paul says that they “came in privately.” Thirdly, they behaved as if they possessed the authority of Apostles. Now as the objection ignores these three points, the reasoning contained in it is worthless. + 6. The false apostles were unjust usurpers when they accepted the contributions of the faithful. Three reasons prove this. First, they taught a doctrine that was false and contrary to the Gospel. For, as the Gloss observes, on the words “we likewise beseech you, brethren” (Rom. xvi.), “they forced believers to follow Jewish rites.” Secondly, they preached without any commission from the true Apostles. Therefore St. Paul says that they “came in privately.” Thirdly, they behaved as if they possessed the authority of Apostles. Now as the objection ignores these three points, the reasoning contained in it is worthless.
Ad septimum dicendum, quod praedicti religiosi praedicantes petunt quod est eis debitum per secundum modum iustitiae, quia debitum iustitiam respicit; sed in hoc commendabiliores sunt, quia hoc quod est debitum, ut gratuitum petunt. 7. Preaching religious beg for what is, according to the second mode of justice, due to them; for a debt is a matter of justice. But they are the more to be commended, in as much as they ask for that which is their due as though it were a free gift. @@ -1775,7 +1775,7 @@

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2. The saying of St. Augustine, adduced in the second, objection, is to be understood in the same sense as that of Sirach (xii. 4), “Give to the merciful, and uphold not the sinners.” The Gloss observes on this text: “Do not encourage sinners in their sinful ways; do not hold communication with them, as they do who entertain actors, and suffer the poor of Christ to hunger.” But he who gives to a sinner who is in want, not in order to encourage him to sin, but because he recognises him as a man, assists not a sinner but a just man, because he loves not the sinner but human nature. It is better, however, to withhold an alms, than to give it to a man because he is a sinner, or in order to cause him to sin. But it does not follow that we may not bestow charity on the poor of Christ who do no manual work. For, as we have already shown, they commit no sin by omitting to perform such labour. And even were their omission criminal, we would not be assisting them because they are sinners, but because they are in distress.
Ad tertium dicendum, quod ei qui inordinate petit, danda est non res petita, sed correctio; sed ei qui ordinate petit, danda est res petita, si facultas adsit. Unde Gregorius, 21 Moral. super illud Iob, si negavi, quod volebant, pauperibus, dicit: per haec dicta sanctus vir ostenditur non solum ad inopiam pauperibus, sed etiam ad habendi desiderium deservisse. Sed quid, si ipsa vellent pauperes quae fortasse accipere non expediret? An quia in Scriptura sacra humiles pauperes dici solent, ea sola aestimanda sunt quae pauperes accipere volunt, quae humiles petunt? Et proculdubio oportet ut incunctanter detur quidquid cum vera humilitate requiritur; idest quod non ex desiderio, sed ex necessitate postulatur. Nam valde iam superbire est extra metas inopiae iam aliquid desiderare. Patet ergo quod petentibus ad necessitatem danda est indubitanter res; sed petentibus ad superfluitatem danda est correctio. - 3. He who asks in an unbecoming manner should not obtain what he demands; he should rather but corrected. But he who begs befittingly should, if possible, receive what he asks for. Hence St. Gregory, XXL Moral., says on the words of Job: “ If I have denied to the poor what they desired,” that “the holy man, in this saying, bears testimony to himself that he not only assisted the poor in their needs, but condescended to their desires. But what is to be done when the poor ask for things that are not expedient for them to have? Or, since in Holy Scripture, the poor are spoken of as being humble, are we to consider that they ought to have only those things for which they ask with humility? It is certain that we ought to give them those things that they beg humbly for, i.e. that they ask for out of necessity, not out of covetousness. For it would be great pride if they were to beg for what is unsuited to their condition of poverty.” We should, therefore, unhesitatingly, assist the poor in their necessities, and we should. rebuke those who ask for superfluities. + 3. He who asks in an unbecoming manner should not obtain what he demands; he should rather but corrected. But he who begs befittingly should, if possible, receive what he asks for. Hence St. Gregory, XXL Moral., says on the words of Job: “If I have denied to the poor what they desired,” that “the holy man, in this saying, bears testimony to himself that he not only assisted the poor in their needs, but condescended to their desires. But what is to be done when the poor ask for things that are not expedient for them to have? Or, since in Holy Scripture, the poor are spoken of as being humble, are we to consider that they ought to have only those things for which they ask with humility? It is certain that we ought to give them those things that they beg humbly for, i.e. that they ask for out of necessity, not out of covetousness. For it would be great pride if they were to beg for what is unsuited to their condition of poverty.” We should, therefore, unhesitatingly, assist the poor in their necessities, and we should. rebuke those who ask for superfluities.
Ad quartum dicendum, quod tunc in poenam subtrahenda est eleemosyna petentibus, quando ex acceptis occasionem iniustitiae manifeste accipiunt; nec tamen etiam tunc ita sunt eis subtrahendae quin in ultima necessitate eis subveniatur. Religiosi autem pauperes non ex eleemosynis acceptis ad iniustitiam abutuntur, sed magis per eas ad iustitiae opera sustentantur. Unde ratio non est ad propositum. 4. As it is said in the fourth objection, we must refuse alms when, by giving them, we would encourage the recipients to commit injustice; but we should not refuse such assistance in cases of extreme necessity. But as mendicant religious ask for alms not for criminal purposes, but for the furtherance of their sacred labours, this proposition does not apply to them. @@ -1861,7 +1861,7 @@

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6. St. Paul says (Rom. xiv. 17), “The Kingdom of God is not meat and drink.” On these words, the Gloss observes: “It matters little of what quality our food may be, or what quantity we may consume, so long as our nourishment is adapted to the condition of those with whom we live and of our own, and to the requirements of our health.” For the same reason, the fashion of a man’s clothing has no connection with virtue, provided that he wear what is becoming to his condition. Hence it is no mark of a truly religious man to wear a mean dress as a sign of contempt of the world.
Item. Hypocrisis videtur esse maximum peccatorum: unde dominus plus contra hypocritas in Evangelio invehitur quam contra alios peccatores: et Gregorius in Pastor.: nemo amplius in Ecclesia nocet quam qui perverse agens, nomen vel ordinem sanctitatis habet. Sed sub vilitate vestium latet hypocrisis; pretiositas autem vestium ad delicias carnis pertinet, vel etiam aliquem motum superbiae occasionaliter inducit. Ergo vituperabilius est excedere in vilitate vestium quam in pretiositate. - 7. Hypocrisy would seem to be the worst of all sins. For, our Lord inveighed more forcibly against hypocrites than against any other class of sinner. St. Gregory says (Pastoral.), “ None do more harm in the Church than sinners who have a reputation for, or appearance of, sanctity.” Hypocrisy lurks under shabby clothing, just as costliness of attire betokens luxury or stimulates men to pride. It is more sinful, therefore, to exceed the limits of discretion by poverty of attire than by gaudiness of apparel. + 7. Hypocrisy would seem to be the worst of all sins. For, our Lord inveighed more forcibly against hypocrites than against any other class of sinner. St. Gregory says (Pastoral.), “None do more harm in the Church than sinners who have a reputation for, or appearance of, sanctity.” Hypocrisy lurks under shabby clothing, just as costliness of attire betokens luxury or stimulates men to pride. It is more sinful, therefore, to exceed the limits of discretion by poverty of attire than by gaudiness of apparel.
Item. In domino Iesu Christo omnis religionis et sanctitatis perfectio fuit. Sed ipse portavit vestem pretiosam, scilicet tunicam inconsutilem, quae desuper erat contexta per totum, ut dicitur Ioan. XIX, 23: in quo videtur quod erat facta tali opere, sicut panni consuuntur acu cum auro et serico: et quod pretiosa esset, patet ex hoc quod milites eam dividere noluerunt, sed sortem super eam miserunt. Ergo ad religionem non pertinet quod aliquis vilibus vestibus induatur. 8. Our Lord Jesus Christ gave us an example of the perfection of holiness and of religion. But, he wore a precious garment, namely, a coat woven throughout (John xix. 23). Such clothes are normally sewn with silk and gold. The fact that the soldiers would not divide it, but cast lots for it, is a proof that it must have been costly. Hence wearing mean clothing can be no part of religion. @@ -2003,7 +2003,7 @@

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4. Again, Luke 10:7: "Stay in the same house." The Gloss: They should not wander easily from house to house, but keep love with one's host undisturbed.
Item. Ad hoc facere videtur quod dicitur Isai. XXX, 7: ideo clamavi super hoc: superbia tantum est, quiesce: Glossa, in terra tua. - 5. The following words of Isaiah, (xxx. 7), are quoted in the same sense: “Therefore, have I cried concerning this: It is pride; only sit still [Vulgate],” i.e., “abide in your own land “ (Gloss). + 5. The following words of Isaiah, (xxx. 7), are quoted in the same sense: “Therefore, have I cried concerning this: It is pride; only sit still [Vulgate],” i.e., “abide in your own land “(Gloss).
Item. Ierem. XIV, 10: populus hic dilexit movere pedem et domino non placuit. 6. Again, we read in the Prophet Jeremias (xiv. 10): These people have loved to move their feet, they have not rested and have not pleased the Lord.” @@ -2015,7 +2015,7 @@

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1. In the Gospel of St. John (xv. 16), we, also, read that Christ said to His disciples: “I have chosen you that you should go, and should bring forth fruit.”
Hic etiam praedicatorum discursus significatus fuit Iob XXXVII, 11-12: nubes spargunt lumen suum, quae lustrant cuncta per circuitum, quocunque eas voluntas gubernantis duxerit ad omne quod praecepit illis super faciem orbis terrarum: Glossa: nubes lumen spargere, est praedicatores sanctos exempla vitae et agendo et loquendo dilatare: quae lustrant cuncta per circuitum, quia praedicationis luce mundi fines illuminant. - 2. The journeyings of preachers are symbolised by the words in Job, (xxxvii, 11), “ The clouds spread their light; they go round about, whithersoever the Will of Him who governs them leads them, to whatever he commands them on the face of the whole earth.” The Gloss hereon observes: “The clouds that spread their light typify holy preachers who by word and deed propagate the example of a good life and who illuminate all around them, because by their preaching they enlighten the ends of the earth. + 2. The journeyings of preachers are symbolised by the words in Job, (xxxvii, 11), “The clouds spread their light; they go round about, whithersoever the Will of Him who governs them leads them, to whatever he commands them on the face of the whole earth.” The Gloss hereon observes: “The clouds that spread their light typify holy preachers who by word and deed propagate the example of a good life and who illuminate all around them, because by their preaching they enlighten the ends of the earth.
Item. Iob XXXVIII, 25: quis dedit vehementissimo imbri cursum? Quod de cursu praedicationis Glossa exponit, et Gregorius in Moral. 3. Again the words in Job (xxxviii. 25), “Who gave a course to violent showers?” is interpreted, by the Gloss and by St. Gregory (Moral.) of the journeys of preachers. @@ -2027,7 +2027,7 @@

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5. St. Paul says (Rom. xvi.), “Salute those who are of Narcissus’ household.” The Gloss remarks that this Narcissus is said, in other codices, to have been a priest who journeyed about in order to confirm the brethren in the faith.
Item. Isai. XXVII, 6: qui egrediuntur impetu a Iacob: Glossa: ad praedicandum: implebunt faciem orbis semine: Glossa: semine praedicationis; et in Psalmo: in omnem terram exivit sonus eorum. - 6. “When they shall rush in to Jacob” (i.e., “ to preach,” says the Gloss), “they shall fill the face of the world with seed” (Isa. xxvii. 6), i.e. the seed of preaching” (Gloss). + 6. “When they shall rush in to Jacob” (i.e., “to preach,” says the Gloss), “they shall fill the face of the world with seed” (Isa. xxvii. 6), i.e. the seed of preaching” (Gloss).
Item. Prov. VI, 3: discurre, festina, suscita amicum tuum: Glossa: a somno peccati. Excitatur autem aliquis a somno peccati per praedicationem. Ergo discursus praedicantium ad salutem animarum est commendandus. 7. In the Book of Proverbs (vi. 3) we find the words: “Run about, make haste, stir up your friend” (i.e. “from the sleep of sin,” Gloss). Now sinners are awakened by preaching. Therefore, journeys undertaken by preachers for the salvation of souls are praiseworthy. @@ -2076,7 +2076,7 @@

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2. St. Gregory makes the following remarks on the words of Job xvi., “My enemy has looked at me with terrible eyes”: “The Incarnate Truth,” he writes (XIII Moral.), “chose for His preachers such as were poor, simple, and unlearned. But, on the other hand, the astute and double-tongued man, filled with the knowledge of this world, whom at the end of time the Apostate Angel will elect to propagate his falsehood, will be damned.” Hence religious, because they exercise the office of preaching in a learned manner, are regarded as the forerunners of Antichrist.
Item. Apoc. XIII, 11: vidi aliam bestiam ascendentem de terra, et habebat cornua duo similia agni: Glossa: descripta tribulatione quae erit per Antichristum et suos principes, subiungit aliam quae fiet per suos apostolos quos ipse per totum mundum sparget. Item Glossa: ascendentem, idest in praedicatione proficientem. Item alia Glosa: habebat duo cornua: qui simulabunt se habere innocentiam et puram vitam et veram doctrinam et miracula, quae Christus habuit, et suis discipulis dedit: vel duo testamenta sibi usurpabunt. Et ita videtur quod illi qui cum scientia duorum testamentorum in praedicatione proficiunt sanctitatem simulantes, sint apostoli Antichristi. - 3. “I saw another beast coming up out of the earth, and he had two horns like a lamb” (Rev. xiii. 11). On these words of the Apocalypse the Gloss remarks: “The description of the tribulation which will be caused by Antichrist and his princes is followed by a narrative of the evils which will befall the Church, by means of the apostles of Antichrist, who will travel throughout the entire world.” Again, “coming up out of the earth” signifies “ going forth to preach” (Gloss). On the words “it had two horns” the Gloss remarks: “These preachers are said to have two horns, because they will profess to imitate the innocent and spotless life of our Lord, to work miracles resembling His, and to preach His doctrine; or else because they will usurp to themselves the two Testaments.” Hence it would appear that they who go forth to preach, with the knowledge of the two Testaments, and with an appearance of sanctity, are the apostles of Antichrist. + 3. “I saw another beast coming up out of the earth, and he had two horns like a lamb” (Rev. xiii. 11). On these words of the Apocalypse the Gloss remarks: “The description of the tribulation which will be caused by Antichrist and his princes is followed by a narrative of the evils which will befall the Church, by means of the apostles of Antichrist, who will travel throughout the entire world.” Again, “coming up out of the earth” signifies “going forth to preach” (Gloss). On the words “it had two horns” the Gloss remarks: “These preachers are said to have two horns, because they will profess to imitate the innocent and spotless life of our Lord, to work miracles resembling His, and to preach His doctrine; or else because they will usurp to themselves the two Testaments.” Hence it would appear that they who go forth to preach, with the knowledge of the two Testaments, and with an appearance of sanctity, are the apostles of Antichrist.
Item. I Cor. VIII, 1: scientia inflat, caritas aedificat. Sed religiosi humilitatem praecipue sectari deberent. Ergo deberent a studio scientiae abstinere. 4. “Knowledge puffs up, but charity edifies (1 Cor. viii. 1). Now as religious are in a peculiar manner bound to the practice of humility, they ought to abstain from knowledge. @@ -2132,7 +2132,7 @@

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We will now proceed to answer the arguments brought forward by those who condemn learning in religious.
Quod ergo dicitur II ad Tim. III: semper discentes, et nunquam ad veritatis viam pervenientes, non in reprehensionem dicitur, quod semper discunt; sed quia ad veritatis scientiam non perveniunt: et hoc contingit illis quorum studium eos a fidei veritate seu rectitudine errare facit. Unde et ibidem sequitur: homines reprobi corrupti mente circa fidem. - Ad 1. The words (2 Tim. iii.), “Ever learning, and never attaining to a knowledge of the truth,” are a rebuke, not to such as are ever learning, but to those whose study withdraws them from the Faith, and who, therefore, never attain to the knowledge of the truth. Such men are “ reprobates at heart and blinded to the faith.” + Ad 1. The words (2 Tim. iii.), “Ever learning, and never attaining to a knowledge of the truth,” are a rebuke, not to such as are ever learning, but to those whose study withdraws them from the Faith, and who, therefore, never attain to the knowledge of the truth. Such men are “reprobates at heart and blinded to the faith.”
Ad id quod Gregorius dicit quod Antichristus habebit praedicatores mundi scientiam habentes, dicendum, quod intelligit de illis qui humana scientia utentes, inducunt populum ad mundi desideria et peccata: unde Gregorius statim subiungit auctoritatem Isaiae: vae terrae cymbalo alarum quae mittit in mari legatos suos, et in vasis papyri super aquas: quod exponens ibidem dicit: ex papyro quippe charta est. Quid itaque per papyrum nisi saecularis scientia designatur? Vasa ergo papyri sunt corda saecularium doctorum. In vasis igitur papyri legatos super aquas mittere est praedicationem suam in sapientium carnalium sensibus ponere, et defluentes populos ad culpam vocare. Ad 2. When St. Gregory says that the preachers of Antichrist are learned in the knowledge of this world, he refers to those preachers who make use of earthly learning to draw their hearers to sin and to worldly desires. For, in the context to the words we have quoted, he cites the following verse of Isaiah (xviii. 1): “Woe to the land, the winged cymbal that sends ambassadors by the sea, and in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters.” Upon these words, St. Gregory makes this comment: “Paper is made from the reed papyrus. What then shall we understand by the bulrushes, or reeds, of which the prophet is speaking, save earthly learning? The vessels of bulrushes then ate the hearts of worldly men; and to send ambassadors upon the waters in vessels of bulrushes, is to base our preaching on the arguments of carnal wisdom, and to attract our hearers to sin.” @@ -2169,10 +2169,10 @@

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2. We read in the same Epistle to the Corinthians (ii, 1), “When I came to you, I came not in loftiness of speech,” i.e., says the Gloss, “I did not reason with you, nor use logical arguments. I displayed no wisdom. Neither did I, in my preaching, treat of the speculations of physical science.” St. Paul continues, “My speech and preaching was not in the persuasive words of human wisdom.” The Gloss adds, “even though my words were convincing, their power was not, like those of false Apostles, due to human wisdom.” Hence we are to conclude that religious who preach learnedly, must be false apostles.
Item. II Cor. XI, 6: nam etsi imperitus sermone, sed non scientia. Glossa, quia non ornabat verba sed pseudo componebant verba, quos praeferebant Corinthii causa accurati sermonis; cum in religione vis sermonis necessaria sit, non sonus vocis. Et ex hoc idem arguunt quod prius. - 3. St. Paul again, writes: “ For although I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge” (2 Cor. xi. 6). The Gloss remarks upon this passage that the Apostle called himself “rude in speech,” because he did not use flowery language. The commentary further adds, “The words, ‘rude of speech,’ apply not to the Apostles, who were not eloquent, but to the false Apostles who knew how to combine choice phrases. But on account of the accuracy of their language, the Corinthians preferred the impostors to the preachers of the truth. For in religious matters, a power which convinces is needed, not a string of words.” + 3. St. Paul again, writes: “For although I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge” (2 Cor. xi. 6). The Gloss remarks upon this passage that the Apostle called himself “rude in speech,” because he did not use flowery language. The commentary further adds, “The words, ‘rude of speech,’ apply not to the Apostles, who were not eloquent, but to the false Apostles who knew how to combine choice phrases. But on account of the accuracy of their language, the Corinthians preferred the impostors to the preachers of the truth. For in religious matters, a power which convinces is needed, not a string of words.”
Item. Nehem. ult.: filii eorum ex media parte loquebantur Azotice, et loquebantur iuxta linguam populi: et obiurgavi eos, et maledixi. Per Azoticum autem sermonem Glossa interpretatur eloquium rhetoricum et physicum. Ergo excommunicandi sunt qui verbis sacrae Scripturae eloquentiam rhetoricam vel sapientiam philosophicam immiscent. - 4. We read in the Second Book of Esdra (xiv. 25): “Their children spoke half in the speech of Azotus... they spoke according to the language of this and that people. And I chided them and laid my curse on them.” The Gloss understands by “ the language of Azotus,” a rhetorical style of speech. Therefore, they who mingle rhetoric or philosophy with the words of Scripture are worthy of excommunication. + 4. We read in the Second Book of Esdra (xiv. 25): “Their children spoke half in the speech of Azotus... they spoke according to the language of this and that people. And I chided them and laid my curse on them.” The Gloss understands by “the language of Azotus,” a rhetorical style of speech. Therefore, they who mingle rhetoric or philosophy with the words of Scripture are worthy of excommunication.
Item. Isai. I, 22: vinum tuum mixtum est aqua. Vinum autem significat sacram doctrinam, ut patet per Glossam. Ergo illi qui sacrae doctrinae immiscent aquam humanae eloquentiae, reprehensibiles sunt. 5. Isaiah says (i. 22): “Your wine is mingled with water. Now wine signifies the teaching of Holy Scripture. They, therefore, who mingle with this doctrine the water of human wisdom, are exceedingly reprehensible. @@ -2307,19 +2307,19 @@

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Body. 1. In the Second Book of Esdras (v. 18), Nehemiah says, in commendation of his own conduct, “Yet I did not require my yearly allowance as governor; for the people were very much impoverished. Remember me, O my God, for good, according to all that I have done.”
Item. Iob XXXI, 1: pepigi foedus cum oculis meis ut ne cogitarem quidem de virgine: et XXIX, 14: iustitia indutus sum, et vestivit me sicut vestimentum, et multa alia in utroque capitulo dicit manifeste ad sui commendationem. - 2. Job says, (xxxi. 1), “I made a covenant with my eyes that I would not so much as think upon a virgin.” Again (xxiv. 14), “ I was clad with justice; and I clothed myself with my judgment as with a robe.” In both the chapters cited, the patriarch says many other things to his own praise. + 2. Job says, (xxxi. 1), “I made a covenant with my eyes that I would not so much as think upon a virgin.” Again (xxiv. 14), “I was clad with justice; and I clothed myself with my judgment as with a robe.” In both the chapters cited, the patriarch says many other things to his own praise.
Item. Apostolus Rom. XV, 18: non enim audeo aliquid loqui eorum quae per me non efficit Christus; et infra: ab Ierusalem per circuitum usque ad Illyricum mare replevi Evangelium Christi. 3. St. Paul says: “I venture not to speak of anything but what Christ has done through me” (Rom. xv.), and again in the same chapter, “From Jerusalem round about, as far as to Illyricum, I have replenished the Gospel of Christ,”
Item I Cor. XV, 10, abundantius illis omnibus laboravi: et II Cor. XI, 21: in quo quis audet (...) audeo et ego: et multa alia quae ibi in sui commendationem dicit. - 4. The same Apostle likewise says, “ I have laboured more abundantly than all of them” (1 Cor. xv. 10); and “If any man dare... I dare also” (2 Cor. xxi. 21). In the same epistle he writes many other things to his own commendation. + 4. The same Apostle likewise says, “I have laboured more abundantly than all of them” (1 Cor. xv. 10); and “If any man dare... I dare also” (2 Cor. xxi. 21). In the same epistle he writes many other things to his own commendation.
Item Gal. I, 16: non acquievi carni et sanguini: et multa alia in eodem et sequenti cap. dicit, quae ad suam commendationem pertinent. Quod etiam statum suum commendaverit, expresse patet II Cor. III, 6: qui et idoneos nos fecit ministros novi testamenti, non littera, sed spiritu: et ibi multa subiungit ad commendationem apostolicae dignitatis. Et ita patet quod religioso licet suam religionem commendare, et per hoc alios ad suam religionem adducere. 5. Writing to the Galatians (i. 16), he says, “I did not condescended to flesh and blood.” In this and the following chapter we find many similar utterances. We also see that St. Paul commended his state of life. For (2 Cor. iii. 6) he says: “Who also has made us fit ministers of the New Testament, not in the letter but in the spirit.” In this chapter again, he adds many other expressions in praise of the Apostolic dignity. Hence a religious is justified in extolling his order and in thus attracting others to enter it.
Item. Apostolus I Cor. VII, 7, virginitatis perfectionem commendans, alios ad virginitatis statum in quo ipse erat hortabatur, dicens: volo omnes homines esse sicut me ipsum. Ergo et religiosi qui sunt in statu perfectionis possunt suam religionem commendare. Quia ergo commendare se ipsum aliquando quidem est laudabile, aliquando vero reprehenditur; qualiter boni se ipsos commendare possint, Gregorius ostendit in Homil. 9 primae partis super Ezech., sic dicens: iusti atque perfecti aliquando suas virtutes praedicant, bona quae divinitus acceperunt, narrant, non ut ipsi apud homines sua ostensione proficiant, sed ut eos quibus praedicant, exemplo ad vitam trahant. Quod in Paradisum ductus sit Paulus, Corinthiis narrat, ut eorum sensum a falsis praedicatoribus avertat. Et infra: quod perfecti cum faciunt, idest cum virtutes proprias loquuntur, in hoc quoque imitatores omnipotentis Dei sunt, qui laudes suas hominibus loquitur, ut ab hominibus cognoscatur. Sed ne passim quisque se laudare praesumat, post pauca subiungit in quibus casibus praecipue se commendare debent: unde dicit: de quibus tamen, scilicet iustis, sciendum est, quia nunquam bona sua detegunt, nisi eos, ut dixi, aut proximorum utilitas, aut certe nimia necessitas cogat. Unde Paulus apostolus, cum virtutes suas Corinthiis enumerasset, adiunxit: factus sum insipiens, vos me coegistis. Fit vero aliquando ut necessitate compulsi in bonis quae de se referunt, non aliorum utilitatem, sed suam requirant; sicut beatus Iob enumerat facta sua, dicens: oculus fui caeco et cetera. Sed quia in vulnere doloris positus, ab amicis increpantibus impie egisse, et violentus proximis atque oppressor pauperum fuisse dicebatur; vir sanctus inter flagella Dei et humanae increpationis verba deprehensus, mentem suam graviter concuti atque ad desperationis foveam conspexit impelli: qui iamiamque cadere poterat, nisi ad memoriam bene acta sua revocasset. Quod ergo bona sua enumerat, non innotescere aliis quasi ex laude desiderat, sed ad spem animum reformat. - 6. St. Paul commends the perfection of virginity, and exhorts others to this state in which he himself lived, saying: “I would that all men were like myself “ (1 Cor. vii. 7). Hence it is permissible for religious, living in a state of perfection, to commend their mode of life. Self-commendation, therefore, though at times reprehensible, is likewise, on certain occasions, praiseworthy. St. Gregory in, his Homily upon Ezekiel (ix, part I), writes as follows: “Just and perfect men do at times extol their own virtues, and make known the favours which they have received. They are not inspired to act thus by motives of ostentation, but from a desire to draw those to whom they preach to a more perfect life by means of their own example. Thus, St. Paul, in order to divert the attention of the Corinthians from false preachers, tells them how he was rapt to Paradise. When perfect men speak of their own virtues, they imitate Almighty God who extols His own magnificence to men, in order to make Himself known to them.” St. Gregory proceeds to note the circumstances in which men are justified in commending themselves. Then, in the following words, he warns his readers against rash and ill-considered self-praise. “We must remember,” he says, “that perfect men never disclose their own good deeds, unless urged to do so by necessity, or by desire of their neighbour’s profit. Thus St. Paul, after narrating his virtues to the Corinthians, concludes by saying: ‘I have become foolish; you have compelled me.’ At times good men are obliged to speak of themselves, if not for their neighbours’ sake, at least for their own. Thus, holy Job, under the pressure of physical pain, and reproached by his friends for impiety, violence to his neighbour and oppression, was driven to the verge of despair. Then, in self-defence, he called to memory his good deeds, saying: ‘I was an eye to the blind,’ etc. He did not enumerate his virtues from desire of praise, but, merely, to reanimate his confidence in God.” + 6. St. Paul commends the perfection of virginity, and exhorts others to this state in which he himself lived, saying: “I would that all men were like myself “(1 Cor. vii. 7). Hence it is permissible for religious, living in a state of perfection, to commend their mode of life. Self-commendation, therefore, though at times reprehensible, is likewise, on certain occasions, praiseworthy. St. Gregory in, his Homily upon Ezekiel (ix, part I), writes as follows: “Just and perfect men do at times extol their own virtues, and make known the favours which they have received. They are not inspired to act thus by motives of ostentation, but from a desire to draw those to whom they preach to a more perfect life by means of their own example. Thus, St. Paul, in order to divert the attention of the Corinthians from false preachers, tells them how he was rapt to Paradise. When perfect men speak of their own virtues, they imitate Almighty God who extols His own magnificence to men, in order to make Himself known to them.” St. Gregory proceeds to note the circumstances in which men are justified in commending themselves. Then, in the following words, he warns his readers against rash and ill-considered self-praise. “We must remember,” he says, “that perfect men never disclose their own good deeds, unless urged to do so by necessity, or by desire of their neighbour’s profit. Thus St. Paul, after narrating his virtues to the Corinthians, concludes by saying: ‘I have become foolish; you have compelled me.’ At times good men are obliged to speak of themselves, if not for their neighbours’ sake, at least for their own. Thus, holy Job, under the pressure of physical pain, and reproached by his friends for impiety, violence to his neighbour and oppression, was driven to the verge of despair. Then, in self-defence, he called to memory his good deeds, saying: ‘I was an eye to the blind,’ etc. He did not enumerate his virtues from desire of praise, but, merely, to reanimate his confidence in God.”
Patet igitur ex praedictis quod multis ex causis possunt iusti commendare se ipsos: non quasi gloriam ab hominibus quaerentes, sed propter animae utilitatem suam vel aliorum: praecipue autem licet perfecto viro statum perfectionis commendare, ut alii ad perfectionem sequendam inflammentur; sicut et Christiano licet Christianam religionem commendare apud infideles, ut ad fidem convertantur. Et quanto sunt magis sancti, tanto hunc zelum convertendi alios ad perfectionis statum magis habent: unde Paulus dicebat Act. XXVI, 29: opto apud Deum et in modico et in magno non tantum te, sed et omnes qui audiunt hodie, fieri tales qualis ego sum. It is clear then from what has already been said, that men are justified in commending themselves not from motives of vanity, but for the sake of their own spiritual advantage, or that of their neighbour. The most cogent reason which should induce a perfect man to commend his state of perfection, is, the wish to enkindle in others, a desire for the same perfection. Thus, it is permissible for a Christian to commend Christianity to infidels, in order to convert them to the Faith, and in proportion to the sanctity of men, we see them possessed with this zeal for souls. Thus St. Paul said (Acts xxvi. 29), “Little or much, I wish before God that not only you but all who are listening to me today would come to be as I am.” @@ -2367,7 +2367,7 @@

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WE will next consider the arguments, whereby, the assailants of religious try to prove that they are not justified in offering any resistance to such as detract them.
I Cor. XII, 3, super illud, nemo potest dicere, dominus Iesus, dicit Glossa: humiliari debent Christiani, ut patiantur se argui; non quaerant adulationibus deliniri. Ergo religiosi qui non sustinent se argui, ostendunt se non esse veros Christianos. - 1. The Gloss on the words (1 Cor. xii.), “ No one can say the Lord Jesus,” etc., has the following passage: “ Christians ought to be humble and to bear reproach and not to desire to be flattered.” Therefore, religious who do not endure reproach prove that they are not true Christians. + 1. The Gloss on the words (1 Cor. xii.), “No one can say the Lord Jesus,” etc., has the following passage: “Christians ought to be humble and to bear reproach and not to desire to be flattered.” Therefore, religious who do not endure reproach prove that they are not true Christians.
Item. II Cor. ult.: signa apostolatus mei facta sunt super vos in omni patientia. Glossa: patientiam primam memorat, quae ad mores pertinet. Ergo illi qui apostolorum officium praedicando exercent, praecipue debent esse patientes, secundum illud Psalmi: bene patientes erunt, ut annuntient. Ergo debent sustinere in patientia suos detractores, et non eis resistere. 2. In 2 Cor. xii. 12, St. Paul says: “The signs of my Apostleship have been wrought on you in all patience.” On which text the Gloss observes: “The Apostle makes special mention of patience, as being an essential of virtue.” Hence they who perform the apostolic function of preaching ought to be remarkable for their patience, according to the words of the Psalmist (xci. 15), “They will be very patient, so that they can proclaim” [Vulgate]. They ought to bear with the malice of their detractors and to offer no resistance to it. @@ -2403,7 +2403,7 @@

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All the texts which we have cited seem to prove that it is the duty of perfect men, and especially of preachers of the Gospel, not to resist those that speak ill of them.
Quod autem apostolici viri aliquando maledicentibus resistere possint, patet per id quod habetur Rom. III, 8: non sicut blasphemamur, et sicut aiunt quidam nos dicere: faciamus mala ut veniant bona: quorum damnatio iusta est. Glossa: quidam perversi homines non intelligentes, et ad reprehendendum proclives, ita imponunt nobis; et horum damnatio iusta est, et ideo non est eis credendum: in quo manifeste detractoribus suis resistit. - Body. 1. It can however be shown that at times apostolic men are justified in opposing their calumniators, as we shall now see. “We do not say,” says St. Paul (Rom. iii. 8), “as we are slandered and as some affirm that we say, let us do evil that there may come good. Their damnation is just.” The commentary of the Gloss on this passage, runs as follows: “ Certain perverse men, who misunderstand us and who are inclined to blame us, assert that this is our teaching. Their damnation is just.” In these words, the Apostle infers that no credit is be given to his detractors; and thus he resists them. + Body. 1. It can however be shown that at times apostolic men are justified in opposing their calumniators, as we shall now see. “We do not say,” says St. Paul (Rom. iii. 8), “as we are slandered and as some affirm that we say, let us do evil that there may come good. Their damnation is just.” The commentary of the Gloss on this passage, runs as follows: “Certain perverse men, who misunderstand us and who are inclined to blame us, assert that this is our teaching. Their damnation is just.” In these words, the Apostle infers that no credit is be given to his detractors; and thus he resists them.
Item. In III Canon. Ioan.: si venero commonefaciam eius opera, quae facit verbis malignis garriens in nos: ubi Glossa dicit: sicut linguas detrahentium nostro vitio non debemus excitare, ne pereant; ita per suam nequitiam excitatas debemus aequanimiter tolerare, ut meritum nobis crescat; aliquando etiam compescere, ne dum de nobis mala disseminant, eorum qui bona audire poterant, corda corrumpant. 2. In his 3rd Epistle (x.), St. John writes: “If I come, I will advertise the works which he does, with malicious words prating against us.” On this verse, the Gloss comments in the following terms. “We ought not, by our own fault, to stir up detraction against ourselves, lest we cause our slanderers to perish. If our enemies, animated by their own malignity, revile us, we ought to endure such treatment patiently, to the increase of our merit. It is right, however, at times to suppress their slanders, lest by propagating evil reports against us they gain the ears and harden the hearts of those who would otherwise have listened to our preaching.” @@ -2460,7 +2460,7 @@

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1. In the First Epistle to the Corinthians (vi. 7), we find the following passage: “There is plainly a fault among you that you have lawsuits one with another. Why do you not rather take wrong? Why do you not rather suffer yourselves to be defrauded?” On these words, the Gloss observes: “Perfect men should simply to ask for what belongs to them, avoiding contention or legal proceedings.” Hence as religious are in a state of perfection, they ought not to contend with anyone.
Item. Matth. V, 40, dicitur: ei qui tecum vult in iudicio contendere, et tunicam tuam tollere, dimitte ei et pallium; et sicut patet per Glossam, tria praecepta quae ibi ponuntur, perfectionem iustitiae demonstrant. Ergo, cum religiosi perfectionem vitae profiteantur, non debent cum aliquo in iudicio contendere, sed potius sua dimittere. - 2. our Lord says, (Matt. v. 40): “ If a man will contend with you in judgment and take away your coat, let go your cloak also unto him.” “These three precepts,” remarks the Gloss, “embody the perfection of justice.” Hence religious, who profess to lead a life of perfection, ought not to go to law; they ought rather to suffer themselves to be despoiled of their goods. + 2. our Lord says, (Matt. v. 40): “If a man will contend with you in judgment and take away your coat, let go your cloak also unto him.” “These three precepts,” remarks the Gloss, “embody the perfection of justice.” Hence religious, who profess to lead a life of perfection, ought not to go to law; they ought rather to suffer themselves to be despoiled of their goods.
Item. Luc. VI, 29: ab eo qui aufert tibi vestimentum, etiam tunicam noli prohibere: et infra: qui aufert quae tua sunt, ne repetas: ubi dicit Glossa: quod de vestimento et tunica dicitur, etiam in aliis est faciendum. Ergo videtur quod religiosi, ad quos praecipue ista praecepta pertinent, non debeant auferentes prohibere, nec etiam ablata repetere. 3. Again, we read, (Luke vi. 29), “Do not stop him who takes away your cloak... If someone takes away your goods, do not ask for them back.” The Gloss says: “This rule respecting our garments applies likewise to our other possessions.” Religious, therefore, who are specially bound to the observance of these precepts, ought neither to prevent others from robbing them, nor to ask for their property to be returned. @@ -2493,7 +2493,7 @@

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2. We know, by the example of the same saint that it is at times lawful for apostolic men to be defended by armed force. For in the Acts of the Apostles (xxiii.) we read that St. Paul procured his rescue from the snares of his enemies by means of an army.
Item quod liceat perfectis viris libertatem sui status defendere, praecipue in iudicio ecclesiastico, patet per hoc quod habetur Act. XV quod Paulus et Barnabas contra eos qui volebant credentes ex gentibus in servitutem legis redigere, Ierosolymam ascenderunt ad iudicium apostolorum: de quo etiam dicit Gal. II, 4: propter subintroductos falsos fratres, qui subintroierunt explorare libertatem nostram, quam habemus in Christo Iesu, ut nos in servitutem redigerent, neque ad horam cessimus subiectioni. Ergo si aliqui volunt in servitutem redigere religiosos et perfectos viros, possunt se defendere iudicio ecclesiastico. - 3. We know further that it is permissible for holy men sometimes to defend themselves, especially in the case of an ecclesiastical judgment. For, when Paul and Barnabas were at Antioch, no small contest arose between them and those who taught the brethren that they must be circumcised. Then Paul and Barnabas went up to the Apostles in Jerusalem about this question. St. Paul, alluding to this discussion, speaks of the “ false brethren, smuggled in, who came in privately to spy our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into servitude. We did not submit to them even for a moment” (Gal. ii. 4). Hence religious and perfect men may appeal to an ecclesiastical court in defence of their liberty. + 3. We know further that it is permissible for holy men sometimes to defend themselves, especially in the case of an ecclesiastical judgment. For, when Paul and Barnabas were at Antioch, no small contest arose between them and those who taught the brethren that they must be circumcised. Then Paul and Barnabas went up to the Apostles in Jerusalem about this question. St. Paul, alluding to this discussion, speaks of the “false brethren, smuggled in, who came in privately to spy our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into servitude. We did not submit to them even for a moment” (Gal. ii. 4). Hence religious and perfect men may appeal to an ecclesiastical court in defence of their liberty.
Item quod possint sua temporalia aliquando per iudicium defendere, expresse habetur per Gregorium in Moral. sic dicentem: cum curam rerum nobis itineris necessitas imponit; quidam dum ea rapiunt, solummodo sunt tolerandi; quidam vero servata caritate prohibendi, non tamen sola cura ne nostra subtrahantur, sed ne rapientes non sua semetipsos perdant. Plus enim ipsis raptoribus debemus metuere quam rebus irrationalibus inhiare. 4. St. Gregory expressly says (XXXI Moral.) “that religious may defend their property by legal means” On the words of Job (chap. x. 16), “he has laboured in vain,” St. Gregory says: “When the care of our material property imposes upon us the necessity for travelling, we must, if we are despoiled of our possessions, at times endure our loss. At other times we must, while taking every pains to preserve charity, prevent such robbery. We should act thus not only to secure our own property, but, still more to prevent those who would pillage us from losing their souls. Hence in defending our possessions against rapine, our chief care ought to be not so much to guard ourselves against loss, as to save our enemies from committing sin.” @@ -2502,7 +2502,7 @@

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5. St. Gregory likewise commenting on the words of Job (xxiv. 26), “he goes forward to meet armed men,” says, “we are generally left in peace and quiet if we care not to confront the wicked for the sake of justice. But, if our heart is inflamed with desire for eternal life and our mind is truly enlightened, we shall, as far as circumstances permit or the cause require, throw ourselves into the breach in defence of righteousness. We shall go forth to intercept the wicked in their misdeeds, even though they do not seek us out. For, when unjust men aim their blows at the virtue that we love in others, they wound us also, even though they may seem to venerate our person.” Hence we see that it is the duty of perfect men to defend others who may be attacked, even though they themselves are not provoked.
Item. Ad officium caritatis pertinet ut aliquis oppressos ab opprimentibus liberet, secundum illud Iob XXX: conterebam molas iniqui, et de dentibus illius auferebam praedam: et Prov. XXIV, 11: erue eos qui ducuntur ad mortem: et in Psalmo: eripite pauperem, et egenum de manu peccatoris liberate. Sed aliquis tenetur ad impendenda caritatis officia magis illis qui sunt sibi magis coniuncti. Maxime autem sunt coniuncti religioso alicui fratres suae religionis. Ergo debet secundum caritatem resistere illis qui fratres suae religionis opprimere nituntur. Sic ergo ex omnibus praedictis patet quod religiosi non solum licite, sed laudabiliter etiam interdum resistunt violentiis et fraudibus malignorum. - 6. It is a charitable office to deliver the oppressed from their oppressors. “I broke the jaws of the wicked man, and out of his teeth I took away the prey “ (Job xxix. 17). “Deliver those who are being led to death” (Prov. xxiv. 11). “Rescue the poor, and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner” (Ps. lxxxi. 4). Now we are bound to perform charitable offices, primarily towards those most closely connected with us. Hence, as religious are most closely bound to their religious brethren, they ought in charity to oppose those who oppress their order. By this and by all the preceding arguments, we learn that religious not only may, but ought to resist the violence and artifices of their enemies. + 6. It is a charitable office to deliver the oppressed from their oppressors. “I broke the jaws of the wicked man, and out of his teeth I took away the prey “(Job xxix. 17). “Deliver those who are being led to death” (Prov. xxiv. 11). “Rescue the poor, and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner” (Ps. lxxxi. 4). Now we are bound to perform charitable offices, primarily towards those most closely connected with us. Hence, as religious are most closely bound to their religious brethren, they ought in charity to oppose those who oppress their order. By this and by all the preceding arguments, we learn that religious not only may, but ought to resist the violence and artifices of their enemies.
Sciendum est ergo, quod aliquando religiosorum adversarii impugnant ipsam religionem vel religiosorum statum in his quae ad spiritualia pertinent, aliquando vero in temporalibus. Et si quidem in spiritualibus impugnentur, totis viribus resistere debent, et praecipue in illis in quibus non solum sibi, sed aliis prosunt: quia cum religionis statum non assumant nisi ut spiritualibus vacent, per huiusmodi impugnationem perfectionis propositum impeditur. Unde, sicut perfectionis est ut homo propositum perfectionis custodiat, ita ut impedientibus resistat. We must remember that the assailants of religious orders attack them, sometimes in spiritual and sometimes in temporal matters. When religious are oppressed in what concerns their spiritual rights, they ought to resist their oppressors with all their might, especially when the questions involved affect not only themselves, but others. For religious embrace the religious life solely in order to be free to devote themselves to spiritual interests. If their spiritual liberty is curtailed, their object in becoming religious is frustrated. Consequently, as it is a point of perfection for them to carry out their object, it is likewise a point of perfection for them to resist all the obstacles which may be placed in the way of its attainment. @@ -2552,7 +2552,7 @@

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Ad 7. If a man go to law, he need not necessarily be in discord with his neighbour. Although peace of heart should not be lost for the sake of any earthly gain, it does not follow that it is never permissible to make a legal claim to our property. Peace of mind may be preserved in a law court, as on a battle field. Otherwise, war would be always unlawful.
Ad octavum dicendum, quod si aliquis iuste sua in iudicio repetit, ipse non scandalizat, scandalum active faciens; sed si aliquis scandalizatur, est scandalum passivum tantum. In quo distinguendum videtur: quod aut est scandalum Pharisaeorum, cum scilicet quis ex malitia scandalizatur, et scandalum in aliis suscitat; et tale scandalum est contemnendum exemplo domini, qui audito Pharisaeorum scandalo, dicit Matth. XV, 14: sinite eos: caeci sunt, et duces caecorum. Aut est scandalum infirmorum, quod scilicet procedit ex infirmitate vel ignorantia; et huic scandalo occurrendum est iuxta posse, ita tamen, ut pro hoc removendo, aliquod illicitum non committamus. Esset autem illicitum, si aliquis bona Ecclesiae sibi commissa perire permitteret a praedonibus direpta. Et ideo, quamvis aliquis scandalo passivo scandalizetur; nihilominus ille cui committitur cura Ecclesiae, debet defendere iura Ecclesiae sibi commissae: unde et b. Thomas Cantuariensis contempto scandalo regis Angliae, bona suae Ecclesiae defensavit usque ad mortem. Sed si etiam posset sine peccato dimittere illius rei repetitionem, non oportet quod propter scandalum passivum repetere dimittat. Potest enim alio modo scandalo passivo obviare, si est scandalum infirmorum; scilicet pacificis verbis se iuste agere ostendendo: et magis proximo prodesset, si eum ab iniusta deceptione eriperet, vel consuetudinem similia praesumendi auferret, quam si ei rem suam dimitteret. Et praeterea, magis debet aliquis scandalo suo quam proximi cavere: et ideo, si timeret se scandalum perpeti nisi sua repeteret, non deberet prohiberi a rei suae repetitione. - Ad 8. A man who justly claims the restitution of his goods does not actively give scandal. If scandal is taken at his action, he is merely the passive cause of such scandal. There are two kinds of scandal. There is a Pharisaical scandal, by which men, out of malice, take scandal at their neighbour and cause scandal to him. When our Lord was told that the Pharisees were scandalized at Him, He said: “ Let them alone; they are blind and leaders of the blind” (Matt. xv. 14). There is likewise the scandal taken by weak and ignorant persons. When possible, we must avoid giving this scandal; but we must not do anything wrong out of fear of occasioning it. Now it is wrong to suffer the property of the Church to be pillaged; and, even at the risk of giving scandal, we must resist such injustice. Thus St. Thomas of Canterbury defended the rights of the Church, at the sacrifice of his life, making no account of the scandal taken by the King of England. Even if he could, without sin, have suffered the Church to be robbed, the fear of being a passive cause of scandal, would not have been sufficient cause to justify him in permitting such pillage to take place. It is also possible to obviate giving scandal to weaker brethren by speaking to them gently and pointing out that it is really more to our neighbour’s advantage to check him in a course of injustice than it would be to suffer him, by indulgence, to fall into a habit of dishonesty. Furthermore, a man is more strictly bound to preserve himself from taking scandal than to avoid scandalizing others. Therefore, if he knows that unless he reclaims his own possessions, he will himself be scandalized, it is his duty to demand them. + Ad 8. A man who justly claims the restitution of his goods does not actively give scandal. If scandal is taken at his action, he is merely the passive cause of such scandal. There are two kinds of scandal. There is a Pharisaical scandal, by which men, out of malice, take scandal at their neighbour and cause scandal to him. When our Lord was told that the Pharisees were scandalized at Him, He said: “Let them alone; they are blind and leaders of the blind” (Matt. xv. 14). There is likewise the scandal taken by weak and ignorant persons. When possible, we must avoid giving this scandal; but we must not do anything wrong out of fear of occasioning it. Now it is wrong to suffer the property of the Church to be pillaged; and, even at the risk of giving scandal, we must resist such injustice. Thus St. Thomas of Canterbury defended the rights of the Church, at the sacrifice of his life, making no account of the scandal taken by the King of England. Even if he could, without sin, have suffered the Church to be robbed, the fear of being a passive cause of scandal, would not have been sufficient cause to justify him in permitting such pillage to take place. It is also possible to obviate giving scandal to weaker brethren by speaking to them gently and pointing out that it is really more to our neighbour’s advantage to check him in a course of injustice than it would be to suffer him, by indulgence, to fall into a habit of dishonesty. Furthermore, a man is more strictly bound to preserve himself from taking scandal than to avoid scandalizing others. Therefore, if he knows that unless he reclaims his own possessions, he will himself be scandalized, it is his duty to demand them.
Ad nonum dicendum, quod quamvis esca sit simpliciter maxime necessaria corpori, non tamen quaelibet esca. Si enim aliquis ab una esca abstineat, potest alia sustentari: unde ab aliquo genere escae magis esset abstinendum pro scandalo evitando, quam res aliquas alias temporales dimittere, quae cum maiori nocumento amitterentur; et quandoque cum aliquo periculo peccati esset si non repeterentur, ut ex dictis patet. Ad 9. Though it be true that food is essential to the preservation of life, this proposition does not apply to every kind of food. A man may abstain from one dish, and live on another. Hence it may be better, for the sake of avoiding scandal, to refrain from one kind of food, rather than to abandon certain temporal possessions. For, by not requiring their restitution, we may, as has been said, occasion sin. @@ -2613,7 +2613,7 @@

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6. Dionysius says (IV De Div. Nom.) “that the angels are not wicked, although they punish wicked men. Now the ecclesiastical hierarchy is modelled on the heavenly. Hence a man may, without any malice, punish evildoers, or procure their punishment.
Item. 23, quaest. 3 dicitur: qui potest obviare et perturbare perversos, et non facit, nihil est aliud quam favere impietati eorum: nec caret scrupulo societatis occultae qui manifesto facinori desinit obviare. Ex quo patet, quod non solum licet malis resistere et eos perturbare; sed etiam quod hoc sine peccato dimitti non potest. - 7. We read (23 Qaest. cap. Qui potest), “ To neglect to check evil is to encourage it; and he who fails to put down public crime may legitimately be suspected of secret connivance at it.” Hence not only is it lawful to resist and punish offenders, but it is sinful not to do so. + 7. We read (23 Qaest. cap. Qui potest), “To neglect to check evil is to encourage it; and he who fails to put down public crime may legitimately be suspected of secret connivance at it.” Hence not only is it lawful to resist and punish offenders, but it is sinful not to do so.
Item. Iob 39, 21, dicitur de equo, per quem praedicator intelligitur: in occursum pergit armatis. Glossa: quia prave ac male agentibus se pro defensione iustitiae opponit; et interlinearis: etiam cum ipse non quaeritur. Ex quo patet quod sanctorum praedicatorum est iniquos perturbare, etiam eos qui eis molestias non inferunt. Sed tamen hoc non faciunt sancti ex odio, sed ex amore: unde I Cor. V, 5, super illud, tradere huiusmodi in interitum carnis, ut spiritus salvus (sit) etc., Glossa: ex his verbis manifestat apostolus non se odio, sed amore illud fecisse; et infra: sic et Elias et alii viri boni nonnulla peccata morte punierunt: quia sic et viventibus utilis metus incutiebatur; et illis qui morte puniebantur, non ipsa mors nocebat; sed peccatum, quod augeri posset si viverent, minuebatur. Unde non proprie persecutio potest dici, quam sancti malis inferunt; cum non totaliter eos insequantur, ut in malo eorum finem constituant, sed in bono eorum, ut corrigantur, vel a peccato desistant; vel saltem in bono aliorum, ut metu coerceantur vel ab impiis liberentur. Aliquando tamen persecutionis nomen accipit praedicta punitio propter poenae similitudinem. Unde Augustinus ad Bonifacium comitem, et habetur 23, quaest. 4, cap. si Ecclesia: si verum dicere vel agnoscere volumus, est persecutio iniusta, quam faciunt impii Ecclesiae Christi; est persecutio iusta, quam facit Ecclesia Christi et impiis. 8. Job (xxxix. 21) says of the horse, by which preachers are typified, “He goes to meet armed men”, because, says the Gloss, “a preacher opposes injustice in defence of the truth, even when this duty is not imposed upon him.” Thus we see that holy preachers must wrestle with impiety, even when impious men do not attack them. But, the Saints act this way not out of hatred, but out of love. Thus, St. Paul, as the Gloss observes, when he delivered, “such a one to Satan for the destruction of the flesh” (1 Cor. V. 3), did so that the Spirit might be saved; whereby we see that his act was inspired not by malice, but by charity. The Gloss further adds: “Elijah and other good men also punished certain sinners by death. By so doing, they inspired the living with a salutary fear, and diminished the number of sins which might have been committed by those whom they condemned to death.” Hence the chastisement inflicted by holy men on sinners cannot strictly be called persecution. For they do not punish them for the sake of making them suffer, but in order either to correct or check them in their sins, or else in order to deliver others from their oppression, or to restrain others from crime by fear of punishment. Sometimes, however, this chastisement may metaphorically be called persecution. Thus, St. Augustine writing to the Count Boniface (23, quaest. 4, cap. Si ecclesia) says “that the persecution inflicted by the wicked on the Church of Christ is unjust, and that inflicted by the Church on sinners is just.” @@ -2683,7 +2683,7 @@

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Body. It will now be our duty to expose the fallacy which underlies these objections.
Dicitur enim ad Rom. XV, 2: unusquisque proximo placeat in bonum, ad aedificationem. - 1. St. Paul says (Rom. xv. 2), “ Let every one of you please, his neighbour to good, unto edification.” + 1. St. Paul says (Rom. xv. 2), “Let every one of you please, his neighbour to good, unto edification.”
Item I ad Cor. X, 32: sine offensione estote Iudaeis et gentibus et Ecclesiae Dei, sicut et ego per omnia omnibus placeo. 2. He likewise says, “Be without offence to the Jews and to the Gentiles and to the church of God, as I also in all things please all men” (1 Cor. x. 32). @@ -2707,7 +2707,7 @@

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We shall have no difficulty in refuting the remaining objections.
Quod enim dicitur, dissipavit ossa eorum qui hominibus placent, intelligendum est de illis qui ita hominibus placere volunt quod in hoc finem constituant; et qui ut hominibus placeant, Deum offendunt. - Ad 1. “ God has scattered the bones of those who please men,” is to be understood, as applying to those who make the favour of men the chief object of their ambition, and who, in order to please mortals, are ready to offend God. + Ad 1. “God has scattered the bones of those who please men,” is to be understood, as applying to those who make the favour of men the chief object of their ambition, and who, in order to please mortals, are ready to offend God.
Et similiter intelligendum est quod dicitur ad Gal. I, 10: si hominibus placerem etc., ut ex dictis patet. Ad 2. The words of Gal. i., “If I should please men,” are to be understood in the same sense. @@ -2753,13 +2753,13 @@

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2. We, further, read (Acts xv. 3) that “Paul and Barnabas being brought on their way by the Church, passed through Phenice and Samaria, relating the conversion of the Gentiles; and they caused great joy to all the brethren.”
Item. Phil. IV, 1: itaque fratres mei carissimi et desideratissimi, gaudium meum et corona mea. Ergo patet quod apostolus gaudebat de illis quos ad Christum converterat. Ergo religiosi et alii perfecti viri gaudere possunt in illis quae Deus per eos magnifice facit, praecipue in conversione aliorum. - 3. St. Paul again addresses the Philippians (iv. 1): “ Dearly beloved brethren, and most desired, my joy, and my crown.” He evidently and openly rejoiced in those whom he had converted to Christ. Why then may not religious and other men rejoice at the great works which God effects by, their means, and especially at the conversion of others? + 3. St. Paul again addresses the Philippians (iv. 1): “Dearly beloved brethren, and most desired, my joy, and my crown.” He evidently and openly rejoiced in those whom he had converted to Christ. Why then may not religious and other men rejoice at the great works which God effects by, their means, and especially at the conversion of others?
Item. Nullus gratias agit de hoc in quo non credit sibi gratiam esse factam. Sed nullus reputat sibi gratiam fieri de hoc de quo non gaudet. Si ergo non est gaudendum de his quae Deus per eum magnifice operatur, non sunt de hoc gratiae agendae: quod est omnino absurdum. 4. We return thanks only for what we consider to be a favour granted to us. Now no one receives a favour without rejoicing at it. If then it is not permissible to rejoice at great deeds which God does by means of us, we have no reason to thank Him for them. This proposition is, of course, absurd.
Item. Secundum philosophum in I Ethic., nullus est iustus qui non gaudet iustis operationibus: et huic concordat quod dicitur in Psalmo: servite domino in laetitia. Sed nihil magnificentius Deus per aliquem facit, quam opus iustitiae, quo ei servitur. Ergo sancti viri gaudere debent de his quae Deus per eos magnifice operatur. - 5. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “No one is just who does not rejoice at works of justice.” This sentiment agrees with the verse of the Psalm (xcix. 2): “ Serve the Lord with gladness.” No work of the Lord is so magnificent as is the work of justice, whereby He is served, Therefore, holy men ought to rejoice that God effects this great work by their instrumentality. + 5. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “No one is just who does not rejoice at works of justice.” This sentiment agrees with the verse of the Psalm (xcix. 2): “Serve the Lord with gladness.” No work of the Lord is so magnificent as is the work of justice, whereby He is served, Therefore, holy men ought to rejoice that God effects this great work by their instrumentality.
Ad horum ergo evidentiam sciendum est, quod gaudium non est nisi de bono: unde secundum ordinem bonorum est de eis gaudendum: et ideo finis laetitiae in solo summo bono ponendus est, quo proprie dicimur frui; aliis autem rebus hoc modo gaudere debemus, ut in tali gaudio finis non ponatur, sed referatur ad ultimum finem. Qui ergo gaudet de bonis quae Deus per eum operatur, hoc gaudium in Deum referens, recte gaudet: quod contingit dum aliquis propter hoc gaudet de his quae Deus per eum facit: quia videt hoc in gloriam Dei cedere, et suam et aliorum salutem. Si autem aliter gaudeat, suis operibus fruitur, et peccat. Unde et Gregorius in moralibus exponens praefata verba Iob, sic dicit: nonnunquam etiam sancti viri de bona sua opinione gaudent. Sed cum per hanc ad meliora proficere audientes pensant, non iam de opinione sua, sed de proximorum utilitate gaudent: quia aliud est favores quaerere, et aliud de profectibus exultare. We must bear in mind that joy appertains only to what is good, and that it ought to be proportioned to the degree of goodness existent in the things at which we rejoice. Hence we ought to find our greatest joy in the highest good. We may rejoice in other things, but we ought not to find perfect joy in them. This is to be sought for only in the highest good. Now he who rejoices at the good which God effects by his means rejoices rightly, if he places his joy in God, i.e., if he rejoices because the good wrought through his instrumentality tends to the glory of God, and to his own and his neighbour’s salvation. But if he rejoices in any other spirit, he rejoices in his own works and commits sin. Hence St. Gregory, explaining the words of Job already quoted, says (22 Moral.): “At times holy men rejoice on account of the good repute in which they are held. But as they only desire to be esteemed for the sake of doing more good amongst those to whom they preach, they rejoice when they are thought well of, not for the sake of their own honour, but for the profit of others. It is one thing to seek human favour, and another to rejoice at the improvement which we effect in our neighbour?’ @@ -2852,7 +2852,7 @@

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WE have hitherto spoken of the false judgments passed by the enemies of religious about things. We will next consider the falsehoods uttered by them about persons.
Forte autem posset alicui videri quod detractiones quae personis irrogantur, essent tolerandae sine contradictione: tum quia, ut Gregorius dicit 9 Hom. primae partis super Ezech., perversorum derogatio vitae nostrae approbatio est: quia iam ostenditur nos aliquid iustitiae habere, si illis displicere incipimus qui non placent Deo: iuxta illud quod dicitur Ioan. XV, 18: si mundus vos odit etc.; tum etiam quia humana iudicia sunt parvipendenda, secundum apostolum I Cor. IV, 3: mihi pro minimo est ut a vobis iudicer, aut ab humano die: et praecipue cum nostrae conscientiae Deum testem habeamus, secundum illud Iob XVI, 20: ecce in coelo testis meus et cetera. - It may perhaps appear that detraction uttered against persons ought to be borne by them without refutation. St. Gregory says, “ The blame of wicked men is a testimony to the innocence of our life. For if we are offensive to those who displease God, it is a proof that our life must be upright” (IX Homil. part 1, super Ezech.). Again, we read (John xv. 18), “If the world hates you, know that it has first hated Me.” St. Paul likewise teaches us that the judgments of men are to be lightly esteemed, saying (1 Cor. iv. 3): “To me it is a very small thing to be judged by you, or by man’s day.” We can especially afford to despise human opinion when we have the testimony of a good conscience, and when we can say with Job: “My witness is in heaven” (xvi. 20). + It may perhaps appear that detraction uttered against persons ought to be borne by them without refutation. St. Gregory says, “The blame of wicked men is a testimony to the innocence of our life. For if we are offensive to those who displease God, it is a proof that our life must be upright” (IX Homil. part 1, super Ezech.). Again, we read (John xv. 18), “If the world hates you, know that it has first hated Me.” St. Paul likewise teaches us that the judgments of men are to be lightly esteemed, saying (1 Cor. iv. 3): “To me it is a very small thing to be judged by you, or by man’s day.” We can especially afford to despise human opinion when we have the testimony of a good conscience, and when we can say with Job: “My witness is in heaven” (xvi. 20).
Sed interius considerantibus apparet huiusmodi detrahentium linguas esse efficaciter reprimendas propter tria. On further consideration, we shall, however, see that it is more prudent for religious to silence the tongues of their detractors. This is evident for three reasons: @@ -2888,7 +2888,7 @@

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Secondly, if any evil prevails among religious, their enemies exaggerate it with regard to persons. Thus the faults committed by two or three individuals are attributed to all religious. Thus it may be said that in certain cases some men are not content with the food set before them, but seek better living elsewhere. Even should this accusation is occasionally true of certain individuals, that is no reason why it should be levelled at all religious in general. Hence St. Augustine, writing to Vincent the Donatist, says (23 Quaest. VI, cap. Quicumque): “If any man, not justly, but avariciously, retains the goods of the poor which you held in the name of the Church, the fact is displeasing to us. You, however, will have some difficulty in proving it. We bear with some men whom we are not able to correct or to punish. We cannot forsake the granary of the Lord on account of the chaff contained therein; nor can we break His nets, because of the worthless fish that they have caught.” For the fact that certain men among religious commit crimes is no reason for defaming the whole religious body. Otherwise, the treachery of Judas ought to have been attributed to the whole College of the Apostles on account of the words, “Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil?” (John vi. 71). St. Gregory, commenting on the words of Cant. (ii. 2), “As a lily among thorns, so is my beloved among the daughters,” says: “There cannot be bad men without good, nor good without bad.” Of the bad we may use the words of St. John (1 Epist. ii. 19): “They went out from us; but they were not of us.”
Tertio extendunt religiosorum mala secundum quantitatem, videlicet eorum peccata levia ultra modum aggravando. Non enim possunt in hoc mundo sine peccato vivere, secundum illud I Ioan. I, 8: si dixerimus quia peccatum non habemus, nos ipsos seducimus. Sed tamen peccata levia, quae etiam in quantumcumque perfectis inveniuntur, quasi gravia exaggerant, contra illud Prov. XXIV, 15: ne insidieris, et quaeras iniquitatem in domo iusti. Et ad hoc pertinet quod religiosos pseudoapostolos esse dicunt his signis, quod quaerunt opulentiora hospitia, in quibus melius procurentur; quod procurant aliena negotia, ut sic mereantur hospitia; quod cupiunt bona temporalia illorum quibus praedicant, et alia huiusmodi: quae etsi in vitium sonent, non tamen sunt tam gravia, ut pro eis dici possint peccatores qui haec committunt, nedum pro eis possint dici pseudoapostoli: unde super illud Gal. II, 15: nos natura Iudaei, et non ex gentibus peccatores, dicit Glossa: hoc nomen non est usitatum in Scriptura de illis qui, cum iuste et laudabiliter vivant, non sunt sine peccato. Et sic eis contingit quod dicitur Matth. VII, 3 quod scilicet vident festucam in oculo fratris sui, et trabem in oculo suo non vident: ubi dicit Glossa: multi praeventi maioribus, leviora in fratre malunt vituperare et damnare quam emendare, pleni odio et invidia et malitia. Implent etiam quod dicitur Matth. XXIII, 24: colantes culicem, camelum autem glutientes, minima religiosorum peccata mordaciter arguentes, sua gravia non curantes. - Thirdly, the enemies of religious exaggerate the degree of any evil that may prevail among them. Thus, the venial offences of religious are represented to the world as heinous crimes. St. John tells us that no one can live in the world without sin. “If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves “ (1 John, i. 8). But the men of whom we have been speaking magnify the slight faults observable even in the perfect, and speak of them as though they were serious crimes. Thereby they disobey the exhortation of the Book of Proverbs (xxiv. 15): “ Lie not in wait, nor seek after wickedness in the house of the just,” They call religious false apostles, because they say that they seek hospitality the houses of the wealthy, where they will be best fed; because they assist others in their affairs in order to be entertained by them; because they accept material assistance from those to whom they preach; and on other grounds of the like nature. Now though such actions be faulty, they cannot be called grave crimes, nor ought those guilty of them to be on that account named sinners or false apostles. The Gloss, commenting on the verse in Gal. ii., “We, by nature, are Jews and not of the Gentiles, sinners,” This epithet (i.e. sinner), is not used in the Scriptures of those who, although they live upright and praiseworthy lives, are not wholly free from sin.” This observation applies to those who see the mote in their brother’s eye, but not the beam in their own (Matt. iii. 3). The Gloss further remarks that “many, laden with grave sins, are so filled with envy, hatred and malice that they would rather blame and condemn their neighbour for his lesser offences, than strive to correct him.” In short, those who venomously attack religious for small faults, and remain unconscious of their own serious defects, are precisely those of whom our Lord said that they strain a gnat and swallow a camel (Mat. xxxiii. 24). + Thirdly, the enemies of religious exaggerate the degree of any evil that may prevail among them. Thus, the venial offences of religious are represented to the world as heinous crimes. St. John tells us that no one can live in the world without sin. “If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves “(1 John, i. 8). But the men of whom we have been speaking magnify the slight faults observable even in the perfect, and speak of them as though they were serious crimes. Thereby they disobey the exhortation of the Book of Proverbs (xxiv. 15): “Lie not in wait, nor seek after wickedness in the house of the just,” They call religious false apostles, because they say that they seek hospitality the houses of the wealthy, where they will be best fed; because they assist others in their affairs in order to be entertained by them; because they accept material assistance from those to whom they preach; and on other grounds of the like nature. Now though such actions be faulty, they cannot be called grave crimes, nor ought those guilty of them to be on that account named sinners or false apostles. The Gloss, commenting on the verse in Gal. ii., “We, by nature, are Jews and not of the Gentiles, sinners,” This epithet (i.e. sinner), is not used in the Scriptures of those who, although they live upright and praiseworthy lives, are not wholly free from sin.” This observation applies to those who see the mote in their brother’s eye, but not the beam in their own (Matt. iii. 3). The Gloss further remarks that “many, laden with grave sins, are so filled with envy, hatred and malice that they would rather blame and condemn their neighbour for his lesser offences, than strive to correct him.” In short, those who venomously attack religious for small faults, and remain unconscious of their own serious defects, are precisely those of whom our Lord said that they strain a gnat and swallow a camel (Mat. xxxiii. 24).
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3. Those who believe in the speedy coming of Antichrist, say that his appearance is heralded by eight signs.
quorum primum videtur sumi ex hoc quod dicitur Dan. VII, 25, de Antichristo: putabit quod possit mutare tempora: Glossa: in tantam elatus superbiam, ut leges et caeremonias mutare conetur. Unde cum quidam iam Christi Evangelium mutare conentur in quoddam aliud Evangelium quod dicunt aeternum, manifeste dicunt instare tempora Antichristi. Hoc autem Evangelium de quo loquuntur, est quoddam introductorium in libros Ioachim compositum, quod est ab Ecclesia reprobatum: vel etiam ipsa doctrina Ioachim, per quam, ut dicunt, Evangelium Christi mutatur. Quo supposito, istud signum nullum est: quia temporibus apostolorum quidam Evangelium Christi mutare voluerunt, ut patet Gal. I, 6: miror quod tam cito transferimini ab eo qui vos vocavit in aliud Evangelium. - (1) They quote the words of Daniel (vii. 25) concerning Antichrist: “He shall think himself able to change times.” That is to say, according to the Gloss, “ His pride is so excessive that he strives to alter laws and ceremonies.” On account of these words the days of Antichrist are said to be at hand, because certain men try to alter the Gospel of Christ into another gospel, which they call “eternal.” The Gospel of which they speak is a certain Introduction to the books of Joachim, which is condemned by the Church. Or else it is the doctrine of Joachim, whereby they say the Gospel of Christ is altered. But granted that this hypothesis were true, it would be no token of the approach of Antichrist. For even in the days of the Apostles, certain men tried to alter the Gospel of Christ. Thus St. Paul says (Gal. i. 6): “I wonder that you are soon removed from him who called you into the grace of Christ, to another Gospel.” + (1) They quote the words of Daniel (vii. 25) concerning Antichrist: “He shall think himself able to change times.” That is to say, according to the Gloss, “His pride is so excessive that he strives to alter laws and ceremonies.” On account of these words the days of Antichrist are said to be at hand, because certain men try to alter the Gospel of Christ into another gospel, which they call “eternal.” The Gospel of which they speak is a certain Introduction to the books of Joachim, which is condemned by the Church. Or else it is the doctrine of Joachim, whereby they say the Gospel of Christ is altered. But granted that this hypothesis were true, it would be no token of the approach of Antichrist. For even in the days of the Apostles, certain men tried to alter the Gospel of Christ. Thus St. Paul says (Gal. i. 6): “I wonder that you are soon removed from him who called you into the grace of Christ, to another Gospel.”
Secundum signum assumunt ex hoc quod habetur in Psalmo: constitue domine legislatorem super eos: Glossa: Antichristum legis pravae latorem. Unde, cum doctrina praedicta, quam legem Antichristi dicunt, sit Parisius exposita, signum est Antichristi adventum instare. Sed doctrinam Ioachim, vel illius introductorii, quamvis alia reprobanda contineat, esse doctrinam quam praedicabit Antichristus, falsum est. Ipse enim praedicabit se esse Deum, ut habetur II Thess. II, 4: ut in templo Dei sedeat tanquam sit Deus, et quod extollitur supra omne quod nominatur Deus aut quod colitur. Quod si doctrinam Antichristi intelligunt omnem falsam doctrinam, sicut et Antichristi dicuntur omnes haeretici; tunc istud signum nullum est. Quia a primitiva Ecclesia nullum tempus fuit in quo doctrinae haereticae non proponerentur. I Ioan. II, 18: nunc autem Antichristi multi facti sunt: Glossa: Antichristi sunt omnes haeretici. (2) The second sign of the coming of Antichrist is supposed to be found in the words of the Psalmist (ix. 21): “Appoint, O Lord, a lawgiver over them.” This the Gloss interprets to mean “the Antichrist, the giver of an evil law.” As the doctrine which we have already mentioned, which they call the law of Antichrist, was promulgated at Paris, it is thought to be a sign that Antichrist is at hand. But it is not true to say that the doctrine of Joachim, or that which is contained in the Introduction to the Gospel of Joachim, however reprehensible it may be, is the doctrine which will be preached by Antichrist. For Antichrist will proclaim himself to be God. St. Paul says expressly (2 Thes. ii. 4), “So that he sits in the temple of God, showing himself as if he were God.” For if, by the teaching of Antichrist, all false doctrine is to be understood, just as all heretics are called Antichrists; then, the alleged proof of the speedy coming of Antichrist is no proof at all. For from the earliest days of the Church there has never been a time in which heretical teaching has not been disseminated. “Even now there are many Antichrists” (1 John ii. 18). On these words, the Gloss remarks: “All heretics are Antichrists.” @@ -3021,7 +3021,7 @@

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(4) The fourth sign is taken from the words recorded in the Gospel of St. Matthew (xxiv. 29): “Then shall they put you to death, and you shall be hated by all nations for my name’s sake.” This sign is said to be now fulfilled. For, as men will not endure correction, they persecute those holy ones who reprove them, by hatred, by manifold tribulations, and even by death. But, this is no argument at all. For this sort of persecution befell the Apostles and the martyrs, as our Lord foretold. Hence the fact that the Church suffers persecution at present, is no more proof that the second advent is at hand than it was in the Apostolic age.
Quintum signum sumunt ex hoc quod ibi subditur: et tunc scandalizabuntur multi, quod dicunt nunc impleri, quando religiosi diffamantur, et ex hoc homines scandalizantur. Sed ista expositio est contra Glossam, quae ibi dicit: scandalizabuntur, idest discedent a fide timore vel portentis, vel immanitate tormentorum. Unde patet hoc esse completum temporibus martyrum. Et iterum non est novum quod sancti viri ab impiis infamentur, cum dicatur etiam ipsis apostolis, Matth. V, 11: beati estis, cum maledixerint vobis homines, et dixerint omne malum adversus vos, mentientes. In ecclesiastica etiam historia recitatur, quomodo tyranni procurabant fideles Christi turpissimis vitiis infamari. - (5) The fifth sign is taken from the following words: “Then shall many be scandalised.” This prediction is supposed to be fulfilled, because religious are calumniated and men take scandal at that. But this interpretation of the text is opposed to that of the Gloss which says: “Men shall be scandalised, i.e., they shall fall from the faith, through fear of the greatness of the torments inflicted on believers.” Thus this prediction was fulfilled at the time of the martyrs. It is nothing new for holy men to be spoken ill of by the impious. Even the Apostles were told (Matt. v. 11): “ Blessed are you when men revile you, and speak all that is evil against you untruly.” We also read in ecclesiastical history how tyrants caused faithful Christians to be accused of the blackest crimes. + (5) The fifth sign is taken from the following words: “Then shall many be scandalised.” This prediction is supposed to be fulfilled, because religious are calumniated and men take scandal at that. But this interpretation of the text is opposed to that of the Gloss which says: “Men shall be scandalised, i.e., they shall fall from the faith, through fear of the greatness of the torments inflicted on believers.” Thus this prediction was fulfilled at the time of the martyrs. It is nothing new for holy men to be spoken ill of by the impious. Even the Apostles were told (Matt. v. 11): “Blessed are you when men revile you, and speak all that is evil against you untruly.” We also read in ecclesiastical history how tyrants caused faithful Christians to be accused of the blackest crimes.
Sextum signum accipiunt ex hoc quod sequitur ibi: et multi pseudoprophetae surgent, et seducent multos. Quod dicunt nunc apparere, quando religiosi quidam apparent, quos pseudoprophetas nominant, per hoc quod se ipsos commendant, et propter alia quaedam huiusmodi. Sed haec eorum expositio patet esse perversa per Glossam quae habetur Marc. XIII, 21, ubi eadem verba leguntur: quae pseudoprophetas dicit esse intelligendos haereticos, vel illos qui in populo Iudaeorum fuerunt seductores post Christi passionem ante eversionem terrenae Ierusalem. Ad huius etiam destructionem sufficit quod supra dictum est de pseudoprophetis. (6) The sixth sign is taken from the words: “Many false prophets shall arise and shall seduce many.” We are told that this sign is now manifested, because certain religious appear who are called false prophets, because they commend themselves and for other reasons of the same kind. But this interpretation will be seen to be erroneous if we compare it with the Gloss on the passage in the Gospel of St. Mark (xiii), where false prophets are understood to mean heretics, or those who, after the Passion of our Lord and before the destruction of Jerusalem, seduced the Jewish nation. We have also already spoken at length on the subject of false prophets. @@ -3049,7 +3049,7 @@

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But those who affirm that the emissaries of Antichrist will be neither Jews, nor Gentiles, are of opinion that they will be Christians, on account of the words of St. Paul: “Having an appearance indeed of godliness” (2 Tim. iii. 5), i.e., as the Gloss explains, “of the Christian religion.” They hold that the words of the Apostle apply to those by whose instrumentality evil is to befall the Church in the latter days. But, in this assumption they make a great mistake. For St. Paul did not mean that the same men would be guilty of all the vices which he enumerates, but that some of his words would apply to some men, and that other parts of his reproof would be true of other persons. Hence it is not necessary that all those who are likely to endanger the Church should present an appearance of piety. It is merely implied that some of them will do so. In like manner, the early Church suffered persecution from believers and unbelievers alike. “In perils from the Gentiles... in perils from false brethren” (2 Cor. xi. 26).
Ulterius procedunt, quod isti nuntii Antichristi non reperientur inter aperte malos. Hoc autem est expresse contra Glossam super illud Psalmum: Deus quis similis erit tibi? Quae totum illum Psalmum exponit, de persecutione Antichristi; et inter ceteros Antichristi ministros per Philistiin dicit significari illos qui sunt ebrii luxuria saecularium. Gregorius etiam in moralibus exponens illud Iob XXX, 1: nunc autem derident me iuniores, dicit haec esse verba Ecclesiae ab adversariis suis extremis temporibus pressae: et postea subiungit: quorum virtus manuum erat mihi pro nihilo, et vita ipsa putabantur indigni: quae postea et multa sequentia de aperte malis et carnaliter viventibus exponit. - The emissaries of Antichrist, we are next told, will not be found among the manifestly wicked. This opinion is, however, clearly opposed to the 82nd Psalm. The Gloss explains that the whole of that Psalm treats of the persecution of Antichrist. It adds that among his other emissaries, the “ Philistines “ signify those who are drunk with worldly luxury. St. Gregory likewise (20 Moral.), expounding the words of Job xxx., “Now I am turned into their song,” says: “These are the words of the Church in her latter days, when oppressed by her enemies.” Job says in the same chapter: “The strength of whose hands was to me as nothing, and they were thought unworthy of life.” St. Gregory interprets the passages which follow of those who led manifestly evil and carnal lives. + The emissaries of Antichrist, we are next told, will not be found among the manifestly wicked. This opinion is, however, clearly opposed to the 82nd Psalm. The Gloss explains that the whole of that Psalm treats of the persecution of Antichrist. It adds that among his other emissaries, the “Philistines “signify those who are drunk with worldly luxury. St. Gregory likewise (20 Moral.), expounding the words of Job xxx., “Now I am turned into their song,” says: “These are the words of the Church in her latter days, when oppressed by her enemies.” Job says in the same chapter: “The strength of whose hands was to me as nothing, and they were thought unworthy of life.” St. Gregory interprets the passages which follow of those who led manifestly evil and carnal lives.
Dicunt etiam, quod tales Antichristi ministri inter eos qui videntur boni, invenientur: quod probant per illud quod dicitur Matth. VII, 15: attendite a falsis prophetis, et per aliquas alias huiusmodi auctoritates. Sed quamvis tales aliqui sint futuri, per quos Antichristus seducet; nihilominus et alii non excluduntur, sicut etiam in primitiva Ecclesia fideles per utrosque persecutiones patiebantur. It is maintained that the ministers of Antichrist will be found among those who seem to be good men. The proof of this assertion is supposed to exist in the words of Our Lord: “Take heed of false prophets” (Mat. vii. 14) and by other texts of the same nature. But, although some of the emissaries of Antichrist may wear an appearance of piety, it is not necessary that they shall all seem godly. Christians of the early Church were persecuted both by the impious and by the apparently pious. @@ -3067,7 +3067,7 @@

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We are further told that the envoys of Antichrist will be found among those learned men whose opinion is esteemed as peculiarly weighty and valuable. “As if a man should consult God,” it is said of Ahitophel (2 Sam xvi.). The seducers who will appear in the latter days of the Church are supposed to be typified by Ahitophel. For, as Ahitophel adhered first to David, and then to Absalom, so they will take part first with Christ, and then with Antichrist. St. Paul says of them, first that they will have an appearance of godliness, and then that they will be “men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith” (2 Tim iii. 5). Stress is also laid on the words, “they came forth from us” (1 John ii. 19), which means, as the Gloss says, “they shared with us in the Sacraments.” But this quotation is no argument. For St. Paul does not say of the men to whom he refers that at first they wore an appearance of piety, and that then, laying it aside, they became infidels. What he means is that while these men had a superficial semblance of godliness, they were at the same time infidels at heart. There are many heretics who agree with the Church about the Sacraments; and there are some who receive the Sacraments, at least exteriorly. Even if, on this account, they are typified by Ahitophel, that would not make it necessary for them to resemble Ahitophel in the astuteness of his counsels. This comparison is purely a figment of the imagination; just as the correspondence between the plagues of Egypt and the persecutions of the Church, is imaginary.
Adhuc procedunt ulterius, et ostendere volunt quod tales nuntii Antichristi inter eos invenientur qui sunt ad consilia obligati, per hoc quod dicit Gregorius super illud Iob XXX, 12: ad dexteram orientis etc., ad dexteram inquit orientis calamitates insurgunt; quia ad persecutionem Ecclesiae prosiliunt qui electa membra redemptoris esse credebantur. Sed per hoc non potest probari quod inveniantur inter ligatos ad consilia: quia electa membra, quae per dexteram significantur, omnes bonos intelligit: unde ibidem dicit: in hoc loco dexterae vocabulo fidelis populus Ecclesiae sanctae designatur. Si etiam per membra electa non significantur nisi perfecti, adhuc probatio non est efficax: quia etiam aliqui sunt perfecti propter gradum caritatis, etiam si sint matrimonio coniuncti: praelati etiam sunt perfecti quantum ad statum. Unde per electa membra non possunt soli religiosi intelligi. Sed in processu eius plane apparet fallacia consequentis. Probare etiam nituntur hoc idem per hoc quod dicitur Matth. II, 13: futurum est ut Herodes quaerat puerum ad perdendum eum: Glossa: quam cito Christus in mundo apparuit, incepit in eum persecutio, quae praefiguravit persecutionem sanctorum. Et ideo concludunt, quod sicut in adventu Christi se opposuerunt Christo qui sapientiores et sanctiores videbantur, scilicet Scribae et Pharisaei; ita etiam se opponent fidelibus Christi in fine qui sapientes et sancti videntur, scilicet litterati et religiosi. Sed haec probatio non est efficax: quia etiam Christum non solum persecuti sunt Scribae et Pharisaei, sed etiam principes sacerdotum, ut Anna et Caiphas; et principes saeculares, ut Herodes et Pilatus. Nec illi qui Christum persecuti sunt, erant simul omnes Scribae et Pharisaei, sed quidam Scribae tantum, quidam Pharisaei tantum. Unde ex hoc non potest haberi quod intendunt: quia haec ratio non magis tangit religiosos litteratos quam illitteratos; nec eos magis quam praelatos et principes et doctores saeculares. - It is likewise maintained that the Apostles of Antichrist will be found among those who have vowed to obey the counsels. The ground for this opinion is supposed to exist in the following passage of St. Gregory. Commenting on the words of Job (xxx) “at the right hand of my rising,” St. Gregory says: “Calamities shall arise at the right hand of my rising. For those who were believed to be chosen members of Christ now come forward to persecute the Church.” These words do not, however, apply, in any special manner, to those who are under an obligation to keep the counsels; for, by the right hand, or the chosen members of Christ, all good men are signified. This we know by the following passage of St. Gregory (ibid.): “All the faithful of Holy Church are spoken of under the name of the right hand.” Even, however, though perfect men be understood by the expression “ right hand,” this is no proof that the passage we have quoted is especially applicable to religious. For men may be perfect in the order of charity, even though they be married. Prelates, in like manner, are in state of perfection. Hence it is not only religious who are meant by the chosen members of Christ. The fallacy contained in this argument makes it easy for us to see what underlies the ensuing one. The enemies of religious assert that religious are the future emissaries of Antichrist, on account of the words: “It will come to pass that Herod will seek the child to destroy, him” (Matt. ii. 13). The Gloss comments on this passage thus: “As soon as Christ came into the world, persecution arose against Him—a type of the future persecution of the Saints.” From this it is argued that, as at the coming of our Lord He was opposed by those who seemed to be the most wise and holy among men, (i.e. the Scribes and Pharisees), so at the end of the world, the faithful of Christ will be attacked by those who will seem to be the best and wisest, viz., by learned and religious men. This argument, however, carries no weight. For, not only the Scribes and Pharisees, but the High priests, Annas and Caiphas, and the civil rulers, Herod and Pilate, persecuted our Lord. Neither were all those who persecuted Him Scribes; for some were only Pharisees. Hence this argument does not prove that the future persecutors of the Church are to be learned rather than illiterate religious, or religious rather than bishops, or religious rather than secular sovereigns and dignitaries. + It is likewise maintained that the Apostles of Antichrist will be found among those who have vowed to obey the counsels. The ground for this opinion is supposed to exist in the following passage of St. Gregory. Commenting on the words of Job (xxx) “at the right hand of my rising,” St. Gregory says: “Calamities shall arise at the right hand of my rising. For those who were believed to be chosen members of Christ now come forward to persecute the Church.” These words do not, however, apply, in any special manner, to those who are under an obligation to keep the counsels; for, by the right hand, or the chosen members of Christ, all good men are signified. This we know by the following passage of St. Gregory (ibid.): “All the faithful of Holy Church are spoken of under the name of the right hand.” Even, however, though perfect men be understood by the expression “right hand,” this is no proof that the passage we have quoted is especially applicable to religious. For men may be perfect in the order of charity, even though they be married. Prelates, in like manner, are in state of perfection. Hence it is not only religious who are meant by the chosen members of Christ. The fallacy contained in this argument makes it easy for us to see what underlies the ensuing one. The enemies of religious assert that religious are the future emissaries of Antichrist, on account of the words: “It will come to pass that Herod will seek the child to destroy, him” (Matt. ii. 13). The Gloss comments on this passage thus: “As soon as Christ came into the world, persecution arose against Him—a type of the future persecution of the Saints.” From this it is argued that, as at the coming of our Lord He was opposed by those who seemed to be the most wise and holy among men, (i.e. the Scribes and Pharisees), so at the end of the world, the faithful of Christ will be attacked by those who will seem to be the best and wisest, viz., by learned and religious men. This argument, however, carries no weight. For, not only the Scribes and Pharisees, but the High priests, Annas and Caiphas, and the civil rulers, Herod and Pilate, persecuted our Lord. Neither were all those who persecuted Him Scribes; for some were only Pharisees. Hence this argument does not prove that the future persecutors of the Church are to be learned rather than illiterate religious, or religious rather than bishops, or religious rather than secular sovereigns and dignitaries.
Ex his autem omnibus praedictis sic colligendo concludunt. Patet ergo quod nuntii Antichristi erunt Christiani apparentes boni, studiis litterarum dediti, in consiliis dandis famosi, religiosi, ad consilia obligati: in qua conclusione quid intendant, ostendunt. Eos enim quos infamare nituntur, ita notificant, ac si eos exprimerent nominatim. Nihil enim differt dicere Socratem et Sophronisci filium, si solus sit Sophronisci filius Socrates. In quo eorum excusatio tollitur, et simul ostenditur quod ad personas descendunt. From all the foregoing arguments then they conclude that the heralds of Antichrist will be Christians, apparently virtuous, devoted to study, strong in giving advice, religious men, bound to the observance of the counsels. Thus, although names are not mentioned, the victims of this infamous charge are as clearly designated as if they were named. If Socrates be the son of Sophroniscus, we mean the same person, whether we speak of him as Socrates, or as the son of Sophroniscus. The mode in which the accusation is brought against religious is inexcusable; and it proves that a personal attack is intended. diff --git a/english/ContraImpugnantes.htm b/english/ContraImpugnantes.htm index b4d35b74..9f91fed3 100644 --- a/english/ContraImpugnantes.htm +++ b/english/ContraImpugnantes.htm @@ -105,7 +105,7 @@

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First, their enemies endeavour, as far as they can, to deprive religious of the means of study and of becoming learned, in order that they may be unable either to confute the adversaxies of the truth, or to draw spiritual consolation from the Scriptures. This was the cunning practised by the Philistines. “The Philistines had taken this precaution; lest the Hebrews should make them swords or spears” (1 Sam xiii. 19). The Gloss interprets this passage as signifying the prohibition to study. This mode of persecution was first practised against the Christians by Julian the Apostate, as we read in Ecclesiastical history.

Secondly, the enemies of religious seek to prevent their consorting with learned men, in order that, thus, their life may fall into disrepute. “And that no man might buy or sell, but he that has the character or the name of the beast” (Apoc. xiii. 17), by consenting, that is, to their malice.

Thirdly, these same malicious men seek to hinder religious from preaching, and from hearing Confessions, by which means they might effect much good to souls. “Prohibiting us to speak to the Gentiles, that they may be saved” (1 Thes. ii. 16). -

Fourthly, they seek to oblige religious to labour with their hands, that so they may become weary of, and be disgusted with, their state of life; and that they, may be impeded in the discharge of their spiritual functions. They were anticipated in this device by that King Pharaoh, who said, “See, the people of the children of Israel are numerous and stronger than we. Come let us wisely oppress them...” “Therefore,” it is added, “he set over them masters of the works “ (Exod . i. 9). According to the Gloss, “ Pharaoh means Zabulum who imposes a heavy yoke of earth, signifying the labour of tilling the soil.” +

Fourthly, they seek to oblige religious to labour with their hands, that so they may become weary of, and be disgusted with, their state of life; and that they, may be impeded in the discharge of their spiritual functions. They were anticipated in this device by that King Pharaoh, who said, “See, the people of the children of Israel are numerous and stronger than we. Come let us wisely oppress them...” “Therefore,” it is added, “he set over them masters of the works “(Exod . i. 9). According to the Gloss, “Pharaoh means Zabulum who imposes a heavy yoke of earth, signifying the labour of tilling the soil.”

Fifthly, the enemies of religious malign them, and blaspheme against their perfection, i.e. the poverty of the Mendicant Orders. “Many shall follow their luxuries; through whom the way of truth shall be evilly spoken of” (2 Peter ii, 2). The Gloss understands by “the way of truth,” good works.

Sixthly, as far as they are able, they try to deprive religious of alms, and of all other means of subsistence. “And as if these things were not enough for him,” writes St. John, “neither does he himself receive the brethren; and those who receive them he forbids (3 Jn). The Gloss thus comments on, these words, “And, as if these things were not enough for him,” i.e., as if it did not suffice him to dissuade others from exercising hospitality, “neither does he himself receive the brethren,” ie. the indigent, “and those who receive them he forbids,” i.e., he forbids them to give assistance to those in want.

Seventhly, the ministers of Satan endeavour to tarnish the reputation of the Saints; and that, not only by word, but by letters, sent to all parts of the world. “From the prophets of Jerusalem, corruption is gone forth into all the land” (Jer. xxiii. 13). St. Jerome, expounding this text, says, “These words are our testimony against those who send forth into the world letters full of lies and deceit and perjury, wherewith to pollute the ears of those who hear them.” For it is not enough for the servants of the devil to nourish themselves with their own malice, or to injure those at hand, but they must strive to defame their enemies, and spread their blasphemies against them over the entire globe. @@ -116,8 +116,8 @@

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PART 1

What is Meant by Religion? What Does its Perfection Consist In? -

IN order to understand the meaning of religion, we must know the etymology of the word. St. Augustine, in his book De vera religione considers it to be derived from re-ligare (to re-bind). One thing is bound to another, when it is so joined to it, that it cannot separate from it, and unite itself to anything else. The word re-binding, however, implies that one thing, though united to another, has begun, in some degree, to disconnect itself from that other. Now every creature existed, originally, rather in God than in itself. By creation, however, it came forth from God, and, in a certain measure, it began, in its essence, to have an existence apart from Him. Hence every rational creature ought to be reunited to God, to whom it was united before it existed apart from Him, even as “unto the place whence the rivers come, they return to flow again” (Ecclesiast . i.). Therefore, St. Augustine says, (De vera religione), “ Religion reunites us to the one Almighty God.” We find the same idea expressed in the commentary of the Gloss, on the words, “for of Him, and by Him” (Rom. xi. 36). -

The first bond whereby man is united to God, is that of Faith. For, “ he who comes to God must believe” (Heb. xi. 6). Latria, which is the worship of God as the Beginning of all things, is the duty of man in this life. Hence religion, primarily and chiefly, signifies latria, which renders worship to God by the expression of the true Faith. St. Augustine makes the same observation in his De civitate Dei (book 10), where he says, “Religion signifies not worship of any kind, but the worship of God.” Cicero in his ancient Rhetoric gives almost the same definition of religion. He says that “Religion is that which presents certain homage and ceremonies to a higher nature, which men call the Divine Nature.” Hence all that belongs to the true Faith, and the homage of latria which we owe to God, are the primary and chief elements of religion. But, religion is affected, in a secondary manner, by everything by which we manifest our service to God. For, as St. Augustine says in his Enchiridion, “God is worshipped not only by faith, but likewise by hope and charity. Hence all offices of charity may be called works of religion. In in this sense St. James says (i. 27), “Religion clean and undefiled before God and the Father, is this: to visit the orphans and the widow in their tribulation,” etc. +

IN order to understand the meaning of religion, we must know the etymology of the word. St. Augustine, in his book De vera religione considers it to be derived from re-ligare (to re-bind). One thing is bound to another, when it is so joined to it, that it cannot separate from it, and unite itself to anything else. The word re-binding, however, implies that one thing, though united to another, has begun, in some degree, to disconnect itself from that other. Now every creature existed, originally, rather in God than in itself. By creation, however, it came forth from God, and, in a certain measure, it began, in its essence, to have an existence apart from Him. Hence every rational creature ought to be reunited to God, to whom it was united before it existed apart from Him, even as “unto the place whence the rivers come, they return to flow again” (Ecclesiast . i.). Therefore, St. Augustine says, (De vera religione), “Religion reunites us to the one Almighty God.” We find the same idea expressed in the commentary of the Gloss, on the words, “for of Him, and by Him” (Rom. xi. 36). +

The first bond whereby man is united to God, is that of Faith. For, “he who comes to God must believe” (Heb. xi. 6). Latria, which is the worship of God as the Beginning of all things, is the duty of man in this life. Hence religion, primarily and chiefly, signifies latria, which renders worship to God by the expression of the true Faith. St. Augustine makes the same observation in his De civitate Dei (book 10), where he says, “Religion signifies not worship of any kind, but the worship of God.” Cicero in his ancient Rhetoric gives almost the same definition of religion. He says that “Religion is that which presents certain homage and ceremonies to a higher nature, which men call the Divine Nature.” Hence all that belongs to the true Faith, and the homage of latria which we owe to God, are the primary and chief elements of religion. But, religion is affected, in a secondary manner, by everything by which we manifest our service to God. For, as St. Augustine says in his Enchiridion, “God is worshipped not only by faith, but likewise by hope and charity. Hence all offices of charity may be called works of religion. In in this sense St. James says (i. 27), “Religion clean and undefiled before God and the Father, is this: to visit the orphans and the widow in their tribulation,” etc.

Religion then bears a twofold meaning. its first signification is that re-binding, which the word implies, whereby a man unites himself to God, by faith and fitting worship. Every Christian, at his Baptism, when he renounces Satan and all his pomps, is made partaker of the true religion. The second meaning of religion is the obligation whereby a man binds himself to serve God in a peculiar manner, by specified works of charity, and by renunciation of the world. It is in this sense that we intend to use the word religion at, present. By charity, befitting homage is rendered to God. This homage may be paid to Him by the exercise of either te active or the contemplative life. Homage is paid to Him by the various duties of the active life, whereby works of charity are performed towards our neighbour. Therefore, some religious orders, such as the monastic and hermetical, are instituted for the worship of God by contemplation. Others have been established to serve God in His members, by action. Such are the Orders wherein the brethren devote themselves to assisting the sick, redeeming captives, and to similar works of mercy. There is no work of mercy for the performance of which a religious order may not be instituted; even though one be not as yet established for that specific purpose.

As by Baptism man is re-united to God by the religion of faith, and dies to sin; so, by the vows of the religious life, he dies, not only to sin, but also to the world, in order to live solely for God in that work in which he has dedicated himself to the Divine service. As the life of the soul is destroyed by sin; so likewise the service of Christ is hindered by worldly occupations. For, as St, Paul says (2 Tim. ii. 4), “No man being a soldier to God, entangles himself with secular businesses.” It is on this account, that, by the vows of religion, sacrifice is made of all those things in which the heart of man is wont to be especially absorbed, and which are, consequently, his chief obstacles in the service of God.

That which, first and chiefly, engrosses man is marriage. Hence St. Paul writes (1 Cor. vii. 23). “I would have you to be without solicitude. He who is without a wife is solicitous for the things that belong to the Lord, how he may please God. But he who is with a wife, is solicitous for the things of the world, how he may please his wife; and he is divided.” @@ -125,7 +125,7 @@

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The third thing on which man is inclined to centre his heart, is his own will. He who is his own master has the care of directing his life. Therefore, we are counselled to commit the disposal of ourselves to Divine Providence, “casting all your care upon Him, for He has care of you” (1 Peter v. 7). “Have confidence in the Lord with all your heart, and lean not upon, your own prudence” (Prov. iii. 5).

Hence perfect religion is consecrated to God by a three-fold vow: by the vow of chastity whereby marriage is renounced, by the vow of poverty, whereby riches are sacrificed, and by the vow of obedience, whereby self-will is immolated. By these three vows man offers to God the sacrifice of all that he possesses. By the vow of chastity, he offers his body, according, to the words of St. Paul, “Present your bodies a living sacrifice” (Rom. xii. 1). By the vow of poverty, he makes an offering to God of all his external possessions, as did St. Paul, who says, “that the oblation of my service may be acceptable in Jerusalem to the Saints” (Rom. xv. 31). By the vow of obedience, he offers to God that sacrifice of the spirit of which David says, “the sacrifice to God is an afflicted spirit” etc. (Ps. l. 19).

But these three vows are, in the sight of God, not a sacrifice only, but also a holocaust. This, in the Old Law, was the most acceptable form of sacrifice. St. Gregory says (8 Homil. II. part. on Ezech.), “When a man vows to God one part only of his possessions, he offers a sacrifice. When, however, he offers all that he has, all that he loves, and his entire life to the Almighty, he presents to Him a holocaust.” Hence religion, understood in its secondary sense, in so far as it presents a sacrifice to God, imitates religion taken in its primary sense. There are some who renounce a part of the things which are sacrificed by the religious vows; but this partial renunciation is not perfect religion. The observances customary in religious orders are intended to be helps, either to the avoidance of what has been renounced by the vows, or to the accomplishment of the promises which religious make to God. -

Hence we see that in a certain sense (secundum quid) one religious Order may be judged more perfect than another. The complete perfection of anything consists in its prosecution of the end to which it is ordained. The perfection of a religious Order depends, chiefly, upon two things. First, it depends upon the purpose for which the Order was instituted. That Order is the most perfect which is destined to the noblest work. Thus a comparison may be made between the active and contemplative Orders, according to the comparative utility and dignity of the active and contemplative life. Secondly, a religious Order is more or less perfect in proportion as it fulfils the end whereto it was instituted. It is not enough for an order to be established for a specific purpose, unless its customs and observances be adapted to the attainment of that purpose. It two Orders be founded for the sake of contemplation, that one in which contemplation is chiefly facilitated, must be considered the more perfect of the two. But because, in the words of St. Augustine, “ None can begin a new life, unless he repent of his old life,” any religious Order, in which a man begins to lead a new life, must be a state of penance, whereby he may be purged of his old life. +

Hence we see that in a certain sense (secundum quid) one religious Order may be judged more perfect than another. The complete perfection of anything consists in its prosecution of the end to which it is ordained. The perfection of a religious Order depends, chiefly, upon two things. First, it depends upon the purpose for which the Order was instituted. That Order is the most perfect which is destined to the noblest work. Thus a comparison may be made between the active and contemplative Orders, according to the comparative utility and dignity of the active and contemplative life. Secondly, a religious Order is more or less perfect in proportion as it fulfils the end whereto it was instituted. It is not enough for an order to be established for a specific purpose, unless its customs and observances be adapted to the attainment of that purpose. It two Orders be founded for the sake of contemplation, that one in which contemplation is chiefly facilitated, must be considered the more perfect of the two. But because, in the words of St. Augustine, “None can begin a new life, unless he repent of his old life,” any religious Order, in which a man begins to lead a new life, must be a state of penance, whereby he may be purged of his old life.

For this reason, a third comparison may be made between religious Orders. That one being reputed the most perfect, wherein the most austerities and penitential exercises, such as fasts and poverty, are practised. But the first points which we have mentioned are the most essential to religious life. A conclusion as to the perfection of an Order, must, therefore, be based upon the perfection with which these points are observed. For perfection of religious life depends more upon interior justice, than upon external abstinence.

We see then what is the nature of religion; or the religious life, and in what religious perfection consists. Our next task will be to repeat the arguments adduced by the adversaries of Religion, and then to refute them.

We shall proceed, therefore, in the following order. We shall enquire: @@ -140,7 +140,7 @@

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CHAPTER 1

Is it Lawful for A Religious to Teach?

CONSTANT efforts have been made to hinder religious from becoming learned, and thereby, to ensure their inability to teach. The words of our Lord, “But be not ‘you called, Rabbi” (Matt. xxiii. 8), have been quoted in defence of these measures. It has been maintained, that, as, these words are a counsel to be observed by the perfect, Religious, as professors of perfection, ought in deference to them, to abstain from, teaching. St. Jerome, likewise has been brought forward as an advocate against the propriety of teaching being undertaken by religious. This saint, in his epistle to Riparius and Desiderius against Vigilantius (and the words are quoted in Gratian, xvi. Quaest. I), writes thus: “The office of a monk is to mourn, not to teach.” Again, in VII. Quaest. I, cap. Hoc nequaquam, it is said, “The life of monks is one of subjection and discipline, not of teaching, nor ruling, nor of being pastors over others.” And as canons regular and other religious are classed as monks (as it is stated in Extra de postulando, ex parte, and Quod Dei timor), it follows that no religious way lawfully teach. -

It is further argued, that teaching is contrary to the vow of a religious, whereby he renounces the world. “For all that is in the world is the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life,” by which we understand riches, pleasures, and honour. Now teaching is considered to be an honour; and this theory is thought to be supported by the Gloss upon the words of St, Matthew (iv. 5), “He set Him upon the pinnacle.” “In Palestine,” says the Gloss, “ the roofs were flat, and the Doctors sat thereon, and spoke to the people. The devil seduced many of them with vainglory. For they were puffed up by the honour of teaching.” On these words is based the conclusion that teaching is contrary to the vow of religious. +

It is further argued, that teaching is contrary to the vow of a religious, whereby he renounces the world. “For all that is in the world is the lust of the flesh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life,” by which we understand riches, pleasures, and honour. Now teaching is considered to be an honour; and this theory is thought to be supported by the Gloss upon the words of St, Matthew (iv. 5), “He set Him upon the pinnacle.” “In Palestine,” says the Gloss, “the roofs were flat, and the Doctors sat thereon, and spoke to the people. The devil seduced many of them with vainglory. For they were puffed up by the honour of teaching.” On these words is based the conclusion that teaching is contrary to the vow of religious.

Again, it is urged, that, Religious are bound as stringently, to practise perfect humility, as they are obliged to observe perfect poverty. As their vow of poverty forbids them to possess anything of their own, so the humility, to which they are bound, does not permit them to enjoy any honour. Teaching is, as has been proved, an honour. It is not lawful, consequently, for religious to teach.

A passage from Dionysius (V. cap. Eccles. hierarch), is quoted as a proof that religious ought not to teach. This writer divides the hierarchy into three classes, those who perform sacred functions; those who share in these functions; and those who merely, receive the benefit of them. In the same chapter, he divides these functions likewise into three classes, viz., that of cleansing, which is the office of deacons; that of enlightening, which is, the office of priests; and that of making others perfect, which is the office of bishops. Those that receive the benefit of these sacred functions are also, again, divided into three classes, Of these, the first consists of the unclean, who are purified by the deacons; the second is composed of the holy people of God who are enlightened by priests; and, the third class is formed by monks, who are of a higher rank than the other classes), and these are perfected by bishops. Hence the function of monks is to receive holiness, not to impart it to others. And as they who teach must instruct their pupils in sacred science, teaching is not the lawful work of monks.

Again, the scholastic office is more remote from the monastic life than is the ecclesiastical. But we find (XVI, quaest. I), that “no one can exercise the priestly functions, and persevere in the due observance of monastic rules.” Much less then can a monk devote himself to the scholastic office, by teaching or listening. @@ -164,11 +164,11 @@

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It matters little whether teaching be conveyed by the word of a master who is present, or by the writing of one who is absent. To quote St. Paul (2 Cor. x. 11), “Such as we are in word by epistles when absent; such we will be in deed when present.” Now no one has seen the libraries of books, composed by monks, for the instruction of the Church, doubts that they can teach by writing, when absent. Therefore, it is lawful for them to teach by word, when present.

We will now proceed to the easy task of confuting the objections brought against the right of religious to teach.

The first argument, namely, that Our Lord gave a counsel to His disciples not to be masters, is, for several reasons, misleading. First, because the works of supererogation, concerning which the counsels are given, are rewarded by a peculiar recompense. “Whatever you spend over and above, I, at my return, will repay you” (Luke x. 33). These words are applied by the Gloss to works of supererogation. Hence it cannot be a counsel to abstain from works that are to be specially rewarded. Now teachers, like virgins, are promised a peculiar recompense. For we read in Daniel xii. 3, “Those who instruct” (ie., by word and example, as the Gloss explains) “many to justice, (shall shine) as stars for all eternity.” Hence there is no better ground for saying that it is a counsel to refrain from the function of teaching, than there is for maintaining that it is a matter of counsel to abstain from virginity, or from martyrdom. -

Again, there cannot be a counsel which is contradictory either by another counsel, or by a precept. But teaching is a matter both of precept and of counsel. For our Lord said: “ Go, therefore, teach all nations” (Matt. viii. 19). St. Paul also writes: “You, who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of meekness” (Gal. vi. 1). Hence there can be no counsel forbidding us to teach. +

Again, there cannot be a counsel which is contradictory either by another counsel, or by a precept. But teaching is a matter both of precept and of counsel. For our Lord said: “Go, therefore, teach all nations” (Matt. viii. 19). St. Paul also writes: “You, who are spiritual, instruct such a one in the spirit of meekness” (Gal. vi. 1). Hence there can be no counsel forbidding us to teach.

Again, our Lord willed that His Apostles, should themselves put, His counsels in practice, in order that by their example, others should be led to their observance. Hence St. Paul, giving the counsel of virginity, says, (1 Cor. vii. 7), “I wish all were as I myself am.” But the Apostles certainly did not observe the so-called counsel not to teach. For they themselves were sent forth to teach over the whole world. Thus, there can be no counsel against teaching.

It is unreasonable to say that it is a counsel to abstain from those things that embrace the dignity of teaching. Solemnities pertaining to an office are not a cause of personal elation. Otherwise all men would be bound to shun them; since it is the duty of all to avoid pride. External insignia merely demonstrate the exalted character of an office. Hence as it is not imperfect for a priest to sit above a deacon, or to wear costly vestments, it can certainly be no imperfection to make use of the insignia pertaining to the scholastic office. Our Lord said of the Pharisees, “They love the first places at feasts” (Matt. iii. 6); but “He did not” (as the Gloss remarks) “forbid masters to occupy the first seats; he merely reproved the desire to have or not to have them.” It is truly absurd to say that, though it be not a counsel to refrain from teaching, it is a counsel to refuse the name of master. There cannot be a counsel or a precept regarding what is not in ourselves but in another. To teach or not to teach is our own concern, and we have shown that it is not a matter of counsel. But the fact that we are called master or doctor, is no affair of ours. It regards those who give us these names. Therefore, to refrain from being called master, cannot be a counsel.

Further, as names are used to mean certain things, it is foolish to say that a name is forbidden, while the thing signified by it is allowed. Likewise, the observance of the Counsels was primarily the duty of the Apostles. It is only through their instrumentality that they are observed by any other persons. Now the name of Master cannot be forbidden by any counsel, since the Apostles called themselves both masters and teachers. “I am appointed a preacher and an apostle—I say the truth and do not lie—a doctor of the Gentiles in faith and truth” (1 Tim. ii. 7). “In which I am appointed a preacher and an apostle, and a teacher of the Gentiles” (2 Tim. i. 11). -

It remains to be considered that our Lord’s words: “Do not be called Rabbi” are not a counsel but a precept, by which all men are bound. He did not wish to forbid the office of teaching, but the sin of ambition. Neither, when He added, “ nor masters,” did He forbid us to teach, nor yet to bear the name of master. What His words signify, according to the Gloss, is: “Do not desire to be called masters.” He forbids the desire of place. He does not forbid all such desire, but only such as is inordinate, and therefore unlawful. This has been proved both by a foregoing quotation from the Gloss, and also by Christ’s words about the Pharisees, “They love the first places,” etc. Nevertheless, these words, may (says the Gloss) bear another interpretation. If our Lord forbids us to be called by the name of master and teacher, He equally prohibits our bearing the name of Father; for we have one Father who is in Heaven and one Master Christ. “For God” (as the Gloss says) “is by nature both our Father and our Master.” A man may be called father to signify his tenderness; and master to denote the authority which he exercises. That which our Lord forbids is that to any man should be attributed either right over physical or spiritual life, or plenitude of wisdom. Hence the commentary of the Gloss on this prohibition of Christ is as follows: “Do not be called masters, as assuming to yourselves what is due to God. Do not you call others Rabbi, as paying to man Divine homage.” And in another place we find the following commentary on the same passage: “A man may be called father, as a mark of respect to his age, but not to denote that he is the author of life.” In the same way, a man may be addressed as master, meaning that he is united to the true master, and that we reverence Him whose commission he holds. But, if our Lord had absolutely forbidden, either by counsel or precept, the name of master to be given to men, the Fathers of the Church would certainly not have allowed monastic superiors to be called Abbots, a word equivalent to father. If the name father were forbidden, how could the Vicar of Christ, who ought to set an example of perfection, be called Pope or father? Again, both St. Augustine and St. Jerome frequently addressed bishops as popes or fathers. Hence it is the height of folly to pretend that the words, “Do not be called Rabbi,” are to be understood as a counsel. +

It remains to be considered that our Lord’s words: “Do not be called Rabbi” are not a counsel but a precept, by which all men are bound. He did not wish to forbid the office of teaching, but the sin of ambition. Neither, when He added, “nor masters,” did He forbid us to teach, nor yet to bear the name of master. What His words signify, according to the Gloss, is: “Do not desire to be called masters.” He forbids the desire of place. He does not forbid all such desire, but only such as is inordinate, and therefore unlawful. This has been proved both by a foregoing quotation from the Gloss, and also by Christ’s words about the Pharisees, “They love the first places,” etc. Nevertheless, these words, may (says the Gloss) bear another interpretation. If our Lord forbids us to be called by the name of master and teacher, He equally prohibits our bearing the name of Father; for we have one Father who is in Heaven and one Master Christ. “For God” (as the Gloss says) “is by nature both our Father and our Master.” A man may be called father to signify his tenderness; and master to denote the authority which he exercises. That which our Lord forbids is that to any man should be attributed either right over physical or spiritual life, or plenitude of wisdom. Hence the commentary of the Gloss on this prohibition of Christ is as follows: “Do not be called masters, as assuming to yourselves what is due to God. Do not you call others Rabbi, as paying to man Divine homage.” And in another place we find the following commentary on the same passage: “A man may be called father, as a mark of respect to his age, but not to denote that he is the author of life.” In the same way, a man may be addressed as master, meaning that he is united to the true master, and that we reverence Him whose commission he holds. But, if our Lord had absolutely forbidden, either by counsel or precept, the name of master to be given to men, the Fathers of the Church would certainly not have allowed monastic superiors to be called Abbots, a word equivalent to father. If the name father were forbidden, how could the Vicar of Christ, who ought to set an example of perfection, be called Pope or father? Again, both St. Augustine and St. Jerome frequently addressed bishops as popes or fathers. Hence it is the height of folly to pretend that the words, “Do not be called Rabbi,” are to be understood as a counsel.

But, even granted that these words were intended by our Lord as a counsel, it does not follow that all such as are perfect would be bound to observe it. For, those who make profession of the state of perfection are not under an obligation to obey all the counsels, but only such as they, by their vows, are bound to observe. Were it otherwise, the Apostles, who were in the state of perfection, would have been bound to perform the work of supererogation which St. Paul practised in taking no stipend from the churches in which he preached; and they would have sinned had they acted otherwise (1 Cor ix.). Were all religious equally bound to observe every counsel, and to perform every work of supererogation, great confusion would ensue, and the distinctions which now differentiate the various Orders would be abolished. Those who are in a state of perfection are not bound to observe all the Counsels, but only those to which their vows oblige them.

The argument; that the office of a religious is not to teach, but to mourn, carries no weight. St. Jerome meant, by the words quoted, that the chief duty of a monk, as a monk, is to do penance, not to teach. He thereby shows that a monk is not, by virtue of his profession, bound to teach; and he rebukes the presumption of those religious who claimed the function of teaching as their special prerogative. He writes in the same sense in his epistle to Vigilantius. But it does not, by any means, follow that, although a monk has not the office of teaching, it may not at some future time be imposed upon him. It is not the duty of a subdeacon to read the Gospel, but that does not prove that this office will never fall to his share, as Gratian points out (XVI quaest. I, Superiori). St. Jerome wished to emphasise the distinction between the person of a monk and that of a cleric, and to show, that certain duties were peculiar to the office of each. One function belongs to a monk, as a monk; another to an ecclesiastic as an ecclesiastic. The duty peculiar to a monk, by reason of his state of life, is to mourn for his own sins and those of others. The task especially allotted to an ecclesiastic is that of preaching to and instructing the people. This distinction appears still more clearly in another chapter of Gratian, in which be treats of the teaching conveyed by preaching, which is the, special duty of prelates, not of scholastic teaching in which they are not specially well practised. Hence in raising this objection against the right of religious to teach, our adversaries are begging the question.

But, even supposing that it be not lawful for a monk to teach, that does not prove that it is not right for Canons regular to teach; since these are counted as ecclesiastics. St. Augustine, in his sermon De communi vita clericorm (quoted XII quaest. I, Nemo), says, speaking of Canons regular: “He who possesses, or desires to possess private property and to live on his own means, virtually renounces his life with me, and is not a cleric.” This passage shows that those who lived under the rule of this Saint, in the practice of poverty, were recognised as clerics. Although St. Augustine withdrew the assertion that no one was a cleric who retained private property, he never contradicted his words, that those who lived under him without possessing anything of their own, were clerics (see cap. Certe ego sum, quaest. eadem). @@ -204,9 +204,9 @@

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Now these various classes of association, must be judged by different standards. To apply the name of association or society indiscriminately to all is to prove one’s own ignorance. For this, reason, we shall have no difficulty in answering the objections brought at the association of seculars and religious.

We are told, first of all, that “men of different professions ought not to be associated in the same offices.” Then words are quoted, “you shall not join together men of different professions.” This objection is perfectly true if it be understood to mean that men of different professions should not be associated in matters upon which they differ. Hence laymen and clerics should not be associated in ecclesiastical matters. Therefore the following words are found before the words just quoted: “A bishop ought not to have a lay vicar; and the clergy ought not to be judged in lay courts of justice.” For the same reason, religious cannot associate with laymen in commercial and mercantile transactions, in which religious are forbidden to take part. “No man being a soldier of God entangleth himself with secular businesses” (2 Tim. ii. 4). But, as we have seen, the exercise of teaching and of learning concerns both seculars and religious. Hence there is no reason against religious being associated with laymen in scholastic, affairs. For, men of different conditions, who, agree in unity of faith, form the body of the Church. “There is neither Jew nor Greek: there is neither bond nor free: there is neither male nor female. For you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. iii. 28). It is objected that, although in an association of laymen and religious there are some points common, to both classes there are likewise some on which they differ. Thus, there may be a purely secular society, formed of members whose interests are limited to secular affairs. Or, there may be an exclusively religious institute, of which the system is directed towards the formation of the religious life. There is, however, one, point which is common both to laymen sad to religious. For, religious and seculars have this in common, viz., that. they belong to the society of the one Church of Christ, by that agreement in one faith whereby the unity of the Church is made perfect. Hence as teaching and learning are functions pertaining alike to seculars and religious, an association of study ought not to be known as exclusively either a lay or a religious college; but, rather, as a college including both seculars and religious.

The objection that no one can belong to two associations is, for three reasons, untenable. First, because a part cannot be numerically accounted as opposed to the whole. A private society is part of a public society, as a house is part of a city. The fact that a man forms part of a family causes him to form part of a city, which is composed of many families. Nevertheless, he does not, on this account, belong to two distinct associations. Now as an association of studies is a public association, a man who forms part of a private society (be it secular or religious), wherein a few students meet together for the purposes of study, belongs on this very account to a general scholastic association. But he does not, for this reason, belong to two associations. Again, there is no law to prohibit a man from belonging to some public, perpetual association, and at the same time from forming part of a public or private temporary society. Thus, a man who belongs to some civic society may likewise form part of a military association; and the member of a family, may be associated with others in an inn. Now an institute of studies is a temporary, not a perpetual, association. For men attend it, not as a permanent residence, but they go and come at their own convenience. Hence there is no reason why a man belonging to a perpetual society, such as a religious, order, should not also attend a scholastic establishment. The third reason which stultifies the objection to the admission of religious to secular colleges is that this objection applies the particular to the general. The assertion, that a man cannot, belong to two associations was originally formulated about ecclesiastical societies. Thus, a man cannot be a canon in two churches, without a dispensation or a legitimate reason. We read (XXI quaest. I), “From this date, no cleric shall be attached to two churches.” But this rule does not apply to other associations. For, the same man can be a citizen of two cities. Therefore, as a scholastic association is not an ecclesiastical society, there is no reason why a man belonging to a religious or secular association, should not also be a member of a scholastic society. -

The fourth reasoin given for the exclusion of religious from association with secular students is that religious cannot either teach or study without the authorisation and permission of their superiors, who have the power to absolve their subjects from their oaths and other engagements in order to enable them to belong to such an association. Now we must remember that, as the perfection of a whole consists in the union of its parts, a whole cannot exist unless its parts agree. Hence any decrees drawn up for the welfare of a state and city ought to be formulated with a view to the advantage of all its members. Any statutes which would hinder the unity of a commonwealth ought to be abolished. For laws are established in order to preserve the concord of a state and not to promote internal dissension. In the same way, there ought not to exist in any scholastic association statutes which do not suit all students alike. The words of the Apostle, (Rom. xvi. 17), “Now I beseech you, brethren,” etc., quoted by our opponents in support of their objections, are no argument on their side. First because the words of St. Paul do not apply to religious, but to heretics, and to schismatics. This is clearly shown in the text, wherein St. Paul warns the Romans to avoid such as cause dissensions “contrary to the doctrine which they had learned,” learned that is, as the Gloss explains, “from the true Apostles.” Those against whom St. Paul gave this warning, were men who strove to impose the Jewish law upon the Gentiles. Again the words (2 Thes. iii. 6), “We charge you, brethren,” etc., were not uttered against religious, but against men who passed their time in idleness and misdeeds. Of these St. Paul says, “we have heard there are some among you who walk disorderly, working not at all, but curiously meddling,” or as, the Gloss says, “providing for their necessities by iniquitous means.” Again the words (2 Tim. iii. 1), “Know also this,” etc., were written not to religious, but to heretics, “blasphemers” as St. Paul calls them, “who by their heresy blaspheme God” (Gloss). “As Jannes and Manbres resisted Moses so these also (i.e. heretics) resist the truth,” continues the Apostle, “ men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith.” It is true that he says, that the heretics of whom he speaks, had an appearance indeed of godliness,” ie., of religion; but religion in this passage signifies latria, which makes a profession of faith. In this sense, it is, as St. Augustine says, (X De civitate Dei), equivalent to piety. +

The fourth reasoin given for the exclusion of religious from association with secular students is that religious cannot either teach or study without the authorisation and permission of their superiors, who have the power to absolve their subjects from their oaths and other engagements in order to enable them to belong to such an association. Now we must remember that, as the perfection of a whole consists in the union of its parts, a whole cannot exist unless its parts agree. Hence any decrees drawn up for the welfare of a state and city ought to be formulated with a view to the advantage of all its members. Any statutes which would hinder the unity of a commonwealth ought to be abolished. For laws are established in order to preserve the concord of a state and not to promote internal dissension. In the same way, there ought not to exist in any scholastic association statutes which do not suit all students alike. The words of the Apostle, (Rom. xvi. 17), “Now I beseech you, brethren,” etc., quoted by our opponents in support of their objections, are no argument on their side. First because the words of St. Paul do not apply to religious, but to heretics, and to schismatics. This is clearly shown in the text, wherein St. Paul warns the Romans to avoid such as cause dissensions “contrary to the doctrine which they had learned,” learned that is, as the Gloss explains, “from the true Apostles.” Those against whom St. Paul gave this warning, were men who strove to impose the Jewish law upon the Gentiles. Again the words (2 Thes. iii. 6), “We charge you, brethren,” etc., were not uttered against religious, but against men who passed their time in idleness and misdeeds. Of these St. Paul says, “we have heard there are some among you who walk disorderly, working not at all, but curiously meddling,” or as, the Gloss says, “providing for their necessities by iniquitous means.” Again the words (2 Tim. iii. 1), “Know also this,” etc., were written not to religious, but to heretics, “blasphemers” as St. Paul calls them, “who by their heresy blaspheme God” (Gloss). “As Jannes and Manbres resisted Moses so these also (i.e. heretics) resist the truth,” continues the Apostle, “men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith.” It is true that he says, that the heretics of whom he speaks, had an appearance indeed of godliness,” ie., of religion; but religion in this passage signifies latria, which makes a profession of faith. In this sense, it is, as St. Augustine says, (X De civitate Dei), equivalent to piety.

But even granted that all or some religious were as infamous as certain men consider them to be, that would be ho reason for excluding them from intercourse with others. The Gloss, referring to the passage of St. Paul (1 Cor. v.,), concerning the man guilty of. incest, wherein he bids the Corinthians not so much as to eat with such an one, observes that, “the Apostle’s words, ‘if anyone that is named a brother,’ show that men are not to condemn each other rashly and carelessly, but that it is only after judgment has been pronounced that any sinner is to be excluded from communion with the Church. If such a sinner cannot be judicially excommunicated, he must be tolerated.” We have no right to exclude any man from the society of his fellows, unless he be, by his own confession, found guilty of some crime, or be denounced and convicted by some secular or ecclesiastical tribunal. Hence a man may not be condemned on suspicion, or by someone usurping the office of judge. He must be tried, accused and convicted according to the law of God, interpreted by the Church. Hence even were religious as reprobate as they are said to be, they ought not to be excluded from intercourse with the laity, unless they have been brought to judgment, and have been condemned. -

The attempt to derogate from the authority of the Apostles, is not only based on false premises, but is closely akin to heresy. For we find in the Decretals (dist. XXII. cap. Omnes) the following passage: “Whoever endeavours to wrest from the Roman Church the privilege bequeathed to her by the supreme head of all the churches is undoubtedly guilty of heresy.” And again, “ He acts contrary to faith, who acts against her who is the Mother of the Faith.” Now Christ granted to the Roman Church the privilege of being obeyed by all, as He Himself is obeyed, in order, as says St. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (II Thesaurorum), “that we may continue to be members under our Head, the Roman Pontiff, seated on the throne of the Apostles. From him must we learn what we are to believe and uphold. We are bound to revere him, and to entreat him for all things. To him alone does it belong to rebuke and to correct and to unloose, in the place of Him who has established him. To none other has this power been given, but to him alone, before whom all men do, by the divine command, abase their heads, and who is, by all the princes of the world, obeyed as if he were our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.” Hence it is clear that anyone who maintains that the Pope need not be obeyed is a heretic. +

The attempt to derogate from the authority of the Apostles, is not only based on false premises, but is closely akin to heresy. For we find in the Decretals (dist. XXII. cap. Omnes) the following passage: “Whoever endeavours to wrest from the Roman Church the privilege bequeathed to her by the supreme head of all the churches is undoubtedly guilty of heresy.” And again, “He acts contrary to faith, who acts against her who is the Mother of the Faith.” Now Christ granted to the Roman Church the privilege of being obeyed by all, as He Himself is obeyed, in order, as says St. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria (II Thesaurorum), “that we may continue to be members under our Head, the Roman Pontiff, seated on the throne of the Apostles. From him must we learn what we are to believe and uphold. We are bound to revere him, and to entreat him for all things. To him alone does it belong to rebuke and to correct and to unloose, in the place of Him who has established him. To none other has this power been given, but to him alone, before whom all men do, by the divine command, abase their heads, and who is, by all the princes of the world, obeyed as if he were our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.” Hence it is clear that anyone who maintains that the Pope need not be obeyed is a heretic.

The objection that, according to law, no one can be forced to join an association against his will, applies only to a private society, established by two or three members. But a man can be compelled to form part of a public association, which cannot exist without the consent of authority. Thus, a prince may force the inhabitants of a certain city to accept an individual as their fellow-citizen; and an ecclesiastical society can be compelled to accept a man as a canon, or a brother. Hence as any general scholastic association is, in a certain sense, a society, any man may be obliged, by the authority of a superior, to belong to it.

The assertion that the Apostolic authority is limited to ecclesiastical affairs, is false. The president of a republic is bound to provide food for those over whom he rules, and to undertake the proper education and training of the young (X Ethic). He is likewise obliged to supervise the legislation of his republic, and to establish rules for the well-being of the citizens (I Ethic). Thus we see that the legislation concerning education is one of the duties of the president of a republic. It must, therefore, come under the authority of the Apostolic See, by which the whole Church is governed.

The last objection is founded on an absolute falsehood. The association of religious with the laity in matters concerning education is not intended for the destruction, but rather for the advancement, of learning. Hence there can be no possible doubt that, by the authority of the Apostolic See, seculirs may be compelled to admit religious into their scholastic societies. @@ -214,17 +214,17 @@

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CHAPTER 3

Is it Lawful for A Religious, Who Has Not the Care of Souls, to Preach and Hear Confessions?

THE enemies of religious, not content with trying to hinder them from producing fruit in the Church by teaching and expounding the Holy Scriptures, endeavour to do still further and greater harm, by preventing them from preaching and hearing confessions, in the hopes that thus they may be rendered unable either to encourage the faithful in virtue, or to eradicate vice. Those who act in this manner, clearly show themselves to be those persecutors of the Church, who, as St. Gregory says (20 Moral, on the words Quasi caputio tunicae), “make a special effort to hinder the word of preaching.” -

These enemies of religion adduce several arguments in support of their persecution. First, they quote the words which occur XVI, quaest. I, “The office of a monk is one thing, that of a cleric is another. Clerics feed their sheep: I (being a monk) am fed.” Again in VII, quaest. I, cap. Nequaquam, the following words are found: “The duty of the monastic life is not to teach nor to preside nor to feed others with the word of God, but to be subject.” To preach is to feed with the Divine Word, as is seen in John xxi. 17. The Gloss on the words “feed my sheep,” says, that “to feed the sheep of Christ is to strengthen the faithful lest they fall away.” Hence monks, and religious who are counted as monks, cannot preach. This is more clearly laid down in XVI, quaest. I, cap. adjicimus, in which the following passage occurs: “We declare that, with the exception of the priests of the Lord, no one has license to preach, be he layman or monk, no matter how great a reputation for learning he may enjoy.” Again, in cap. Juxta we read as follows: “ We ordain that monks shall cease entirely from preaching to the people.” St. Bernard likewise says in his work on the Canticles: “Preaching does not beseem a monk; it is not expedient for a novice; it is not permitted to anyone who is not sent to preach.” +

These enemies of religion adduce several arguments in support of their persecution. First, they quote the words which occur XVI, quaest. I, “The office of a monk is one thing, that of a cleric is another. Clerics feed their sheep: I (being a monk) am fed.” Again in VII, quaest. I, cap. Nequaquam, the following words are found: “The duty of the monastic life is not to teach nor to preside nor to feed others with the word of God, but to be subject.” To preach is to feed with the Divine Word, as is seen in John xxi. 17. The Gloss on the words “feed my sheep,” says, that “to feed the sheep of Christ is to strengthen the faithful lest they fall away.” Hence monks, and religious who are counted as monks, cannot preach. This is more clearly laid down in XVI, quaest. I, cap. adjicimus, in which the following passage occurs: “We declare that, with the exception of the priests of the Lord, no one has license to preach, be he layman or monk, no matter how great a reputation for learning he may enjoy.” Again, in cap. Juxta we read as follows: “We ordain that monks shall cease entirely from preaching to the people.” St. Bernard likewise says in his work on the Canticles: “Preaching does not beseem a monk; it is not expedient for a novice; it is not permitted to anyone who is not sent to preach.”

Again, it is, argued that they who nourish the people with the word of God ought also to minister to their temporal necessities. For, as the Gloss says, “to feed the sheep of Christ, means to strengthen the faithful lest they fall away; and, if necessary, to provide for their temporal needs.” As religious are, by their profession of poverty, unable to supply the people with material necessities, they cannot feed them, by preaching the word of God.

The prophet Ezekiel asks: “Should not the flocks be fed by, the shepherds?” (xxxiv. 2). By “shepherds,” says the Gloss, are signified bishops, priests, and deacons, to, whom the flock is committed. Hence religious, being neither bishops, priests nor deacons, and having no charge of the flock, may not preach. -

Again, we read, (Ron. x. 15), “How shall they preach, unless they be sent? “ But, our Lord has sent none but the twelve Apostles (Luke ix), and the seventy-two disciples (Luke x). The “twelve Apostles,” says the Gloss, represent bishops, and the “seventy-two disciples” the priests of the second rank, or parish priests. St. Paul likewise (1 Cor. xii.) speaks of it “helps,” meaning those who assist their superiors, as Titus helped St. Paul, or as archdeacons help bishops. Religious, therefore, being neither bishops, parish priests, nor archdeacons, have no right to preach. +

Again, we read, (Ron. x. 15), “How shall they preach, unless they be sent? “But, our Lord has sent none but the twelve Apostles (Luke ix), and the seventy-two disciples (Luke x). The “twelve Apostles,” says the Gloss, represent bishops, and the “seventy-two disciples” the priests of the second rank, or parish priests. St. Paul likewise (1 Cor. xii.) speaks of it “helps,” meaning those who assist their superiors, as Titus helped St. Paul, or as archdeacons help bishops. Religious, therefore, being neither bishops, parish priests, nor archdeacons, have no right to preach.

We read in the Decretals (dist. LXVIII), “Chorepiscopi” are strictly forbidden both to this Holy See and to all bishoprics throughout the entire world. This institution is an abuse and corruption.” The reason of the prohibition is given in these words, “For, our Lord only, as we know, established two orders: the twelve Apostles, and the seventy-two disciples. Whence this order arose, we do not know, but, as there is no reason for its existence, it must be abolished.” Preaching religious (our adversaries add), being neither bishops (i.e. successors of the Apostles), nor parish priests (i.e., successors to the seventy-two disciples), ought likewise to be suppressed.

Dionysius (VI Ecclesiast. hierarch.), says that the monastic Order ought not to be in a position of superiority to others,” or, according to another version, “is not instituted for the purpose of guiding other men.” Now men are led to God by teaching and preaching. Hence neither monks, nor other religious, ought to preach, or to teach.

The hierarchy of the Church is modelled on the celestial hierarchy, according to the words (Exod. xxv, 40), “Look, and make it according to the pattern that was shown you in the mount.” Now in Heaven angels of an inferior rank never exercise the functiona proper to those of a superior degree. Since then the monastic order is counted among the lesser orders of the Church, monks and other religious ought not to perform the office of preaching, which belongs to bishops and other prelates of a higher rank (Dionyslus, VI Ecclesiast. hierarch.).

Again, when a religious preaches, he does so either with power or without power. If he preaches without power, he is a false apostle. If he preaches with power, he has a right to demand the means of subsistence. Our Lord, when sending forth His Apostles to preach, told them to take nothing with them on the way save only a staff (Mark vi.). This staff signifies, (according to the Gloss), the power of accepting the necessities of life from those subject to them. Now it does not seem fitting that religious should demand the means of support. Therefore, they ought not to preach.

Bishops have more right to preach than have religious, who are, not entrusted with the cure of souls. But, a bishop cannot preach outside his diocese, unless he be requested to do so by other bishops or priests. For it is clearly laid down (IX, quaest. III), “Let no Primate or Metropolitan presume to judge the church or parish or anyone belonging to the parish of another diocese”; and the same rule is given in several other chapters. Therefore, religious, who have neither diocese nor parishes, may not preach, unless specially invited to do so.

A preacher ought not to build upon another man’s foundation, nor to glory in another man’s converts. He ought, rather, to imitate St. Paul who says (Rom. xv. 20), “1 have so preached this gospel, not where Christ was named, lest I should build upon another man’s foundation.” And, again, the same Apostle says (2 Cor. x. 15), “Not glorying beyond measure in other men’s labours,” which words the Gloss explains as meaning “not glorying where another has laid the foundation of faith, which would be to glory beyond measure.” In the same chapter, St. Paul uses the expression, “not to glory in another man’s rule,” which the Gloss interprets as signifying not to glory in those who are under the government of another.” Therefore, those who have not the care of souls ought not to preach to such of the faithful as are entrusted to others. They ought, rather, to lay the foundation of the faith among unbelievers. -

The adversaries of religious, not content with these efforts to prevent them from preaching, endeavour likewise to prove that they have no right to hear confessions. In support of this opinion, they quote from XVI, quaest. I, cap. Placuit: “We positively and irrevocably decree that no monk shall administer penance to anyone.” And in another chapter we find the words: “ Let no monk presume to administer penance, to receive a child to baptism, to visit or anoint the sick, to bury the dead, or to meddle with any office of the kind.” Again (Cap. Interdicimus), the following words occur: “We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penance, or to visit or anoint the sick.” From all these passages it appears evident, that monks and religious, (who are included under the same laws), have no right to hear confessions. +

The adversaries of religious, not content with these efforts to prevent them from preaching, endeavour likewise to prove that they have no right to hear confessions. In support of this opinion, they quote from XVI, quaest. I, cap. Placuit: “We positively and irrevocably decree that no monk shall administer penance to anyone.” And in another chapter we find the words: “Let no monk presume to administer penance, to receive a child to baptism, to visit or anoint the sick, to bury the dead, or to meddle with any office of the kind.” Again (Cap. Interdicimus), the following words occur: “We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penance, or to visit or anoint the sick.” From all these passages it appears evident, that monks and religious, (who are included under the same laws), have no right to hear confessions.

Further, in the book of Proverbs (xxvii. 23) the following exhortation is addressed to priests in charge of, churches: “Be diligent to know the countenance of your cattle.” The Gloss thus comments on these words: “The Pastor of a church is bidden to take diligent care of those committed to him. He must know their doings, and he must remember to correct the vices which he may observe among them.” But how is the pastor of a church to know the actions and failings of those under him, save by confession? Hence the faithful should not confess to any except to their own parish priest.

We further find that the following words were pronounced by Pope Innocent in a general council (extra de paenitentiis et remissis): “Every one of the faithful, of both sexes, shall, on reaching years of discretion, confess all his sins privately at least once a year to his own priest. He who is thus absolved of his sins, need not confess them again.” Hence it follows that if any, save a parish priest, had the right to hear confessions and to give absolution, the faithful would not be bound once in the year to make their confession to their own parish priest. Now as religious are not parish priests, and have not charge of the faithful, they ought not to hear confessions nor to absolve penitents.

The faithful are likewise bound, according to the same decretal, to receive the sacraments from their own priests. None but those in due dispositions ought to receive the sacraments. As a priest can only by means of confession judge of the state of soul of him to whom he administers the sacraments, it follows that only parish priests can be empowered to hear confessions and to give absolution. @@ -266,9 +266,9 @@

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Further, it is certain that the Apostles, of whom bishops are the successors, ordained certain priests in cities and villages to dwell continually among their people. But they likewise sent forth others to preach and to perform other offices, for the good of souls. Thus St. Paul writes (1 Cor. iv. 17), “I have sent you Timothy, who is my dearest son and faithful in the Lord, who will put you in mind, of my ways in Christ Jesus.” Again (2 Cor. xii. 18), “I desired Titus, and I send with him a brother,” i.e. Barnabas or Luke. The Apostle also writes to Titus (i. 5), “For this cause I left you in Crete that you might correct what was wanting, and that you might appoint priests, as I appointed to you,” Hence other priests, besides those in charge of parishes, may preach and hear confessions, with license from a bishop.

The offices of preaching, and of hearing confessions pertain both to jurisdiction and to Orders. But offices pertaining to jurisdiction can only be exercised by those who have received Orders. Hence if a bishop without asking permission of the parish priest, can preach or hear confessions in any parish church within his diocese; another priest may, by the commission of the bishop, act in the same manner.

This proposition is likewise proved, by the fact that persons seeking admission into the Church, receive from the papal penitentiaries letters empowering them to make their confession to any priest whatsoever. And the papal legates and penitentiaries preach everywhere, and hear confessions without asking any permission from parish priests, but solely by the authority of the Pope. This proves that commission can be given to certain priests both for preaching end for hearing confessions, without any necessity for a further license from parish priests. -

It now remains to be proved that religious are fit to perform the functions, of preaching and hearing confessions. For in XVI, quaest. I, cap. Pervenit it is stated that “without the license of their own bishop monks and abbots may not presume to administer penance.” Whence it follows that religious, when authorised by the Pope or by a bishop may lawfully hear confessions. Again, in the same chapter the following words occur: “ We, in our Apostolic discretion and tenderness, decree that it is lawful for monks who are priests and who represent the Apostles to preach, baptise, give communion, pray for sinners, impose penance, and absolve from sin.” +

It now remains to be proved that religious are fit to perform the functions, of preaching and hearing confessions. For in XVI, quaest. I, cap. Pervenit it is stated that “without the license of their own bishop monks and abbots may not presume to administer penance.” Whence it follows that religious, when authorised by the Pope or by a bishop may lawfully hear confessions. Again, in the same chapter the following words occur: “We, in our Apostolic discretion and tenderness, decree that it is lawful for monks who are priests and who represent the Apostles to preach, baptise, give communion, pray for sinners, impose penance, and absolve from sin.”

In the next chapter, Sunt tamen nonnulli, Pope Boniface speaks thus: “We believe that, by the operation of God, the office of binding and loosing may be worthily accomplished by monks in priestly Orders, if they have been deservedly exalted to this rank. We further ordain that for the future, those shall be reprimanded who contend that priests of the monastic profession are excluded from the exercise of the sacerdotal functions. For the higher a man’s rank the greater is his power.” -

Again, bishops are bound, as far as possible, to imitate the divine judgments. St. Paul says (1 Cor. ii, 1), “ Be imitators of me, as I also am of Christ.” But God has judged some monks worthy to preach without any human authorisation. This was the case with the monk Equitius, as St. Gregory relates (Dialog.) and also with St. Benedict. Hence bishops may rightly esteem certain religious to be fit to preach. +

Again, bishops are bound, as far as possible, to imitate the divine judgments. St. Paul says (1 Cor. ii, 1), “Be imitators of me, as I also am of Christ.” But God has judged some monks worthy to preach without any human authorisation. This was the case with the monk Equitius, as St. Gregory relates (Dialog.) and also with St. Benedict. Hence bishops may rightly esteem certain religious to be fit to preach.

Further, everything that is lawful to secular priests is lawful likewise to religious, with the exception of any points forbidden by their rule. In Arg. xvi, quaest. I Sunt tamen nonnulli, it is laid down “that it is right for monks to absolve and to perform similar functions. St. Benedict, the gentle guide of monks, has not forbidden such offices to be undertaken by religious.” Secular priests, when authorised by a bishop, may preach and hear confessions. Hence as there is no rule forbidding monks to perform these duties, they may preach and hear confessions in like manner.

It is a greater dignity for a man to preach by his own authority, than by the commission of another. Now religious are always liable to be raised to the episcopate, in which rank they have a right to preach and do other work expedient for the welfare of souls at their own discretion. Why then should they be deemed unfit to preach by the permission of a bishop? The fact that a man is in a state of perfection does not incapacitate him from preaching. On the contrary, preaching is a ministry peculiarly befitting the perfect state professed by religious. Hence the Gloss, commenting on the words of Esdras (1 Esdras 4), “all the rest” etc., says: “All those who have been chosen and delivered from the powers of darkness belong to the liberty of the glory of the children of God; and they all rejoice at being declared to belong to the society of the holy city (i.e., the Church); but it is the prerogative of the perfect alone to labour at building up the Church by preaching to others.” The fact that these words apply to the perfection of religious, is proved by the following words: The more earnestly preachers instruct their hearers to love heavenly things, the lea will they care about earthly goods. They will even abandon what they already possess, in the hope of obtaining an eternal heritage.” This interpretation further appears in the interlinear commentary, which says, “all the rest” i.e., “the rich who cannot preach.” Hence religious are not less fit than others to preach, and, with the commission of a bishop, have aa much right to hear confessions and to preach as have parish priests.

On the words, “then we set forward from the river,” (1 Esdras viii. 31), the Gloss comments: “Let us likewise call to our assistance the religious army of brethren by whose help we may carry the souls of the faithful to the society of the elect, and to the fortress of a more perfect life, as we should carry holy vessels to the temple of the Lord.” @@ -276,7 +276,7 @@

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Again, a greater responsibility attaches to the office of legate, and to the work of confirming bishops, and setting them over churches, than to the office of preachers or confessors. But, as we know that the first and more onerous duties are entrusted to religious, there is no reason why they should not perform the less important ones.

Again, the work of hearing lawsuits has less connection with the religious life, than have the tasks of preaching or absolving. But, as religious are employed in the former office, they may, with far greater reason, be entrusted with the latter functions.

It now remains for us to show that it is expedient for the salvation of souls that others, besides parish priests, should preach and hear confessions. -

Our first proof is taken from the words of our Lord (Matt. ix. 37), “The harvest indeed is great”—or as the Gloss explains, “There is a vast multitude capable of receiving the word and of bearing fruit”—“ but the labourers are few,” i.e. (according to the Gloss), “the preachers who shall gather together the church of the elect.” “Pray, therefore, the Lord of the harvest, that He send labourers into his harvest.” These words show that it is salutary for the Church that the word of God should be announced to the faithful by many preachers, with an ever increasing number of believers. +

Our first proof is taken from the words of our Lord (Matt. ix. 37), “The harvest indeed is great”—or as the Gloss explains, “There is a vast multitude capable of receiving the word and of bearing fruit”—“but the labourers are few,” i.e. (according to the Gloss), “the preachers who shall gather together the church of the elect.” “Pray, therefore, the Lord of the harvest, that He send labourers into his harvest.” These words show that it is salutary for the Church that the word of God should be announced to the faithful by many preachers, with an ever increasing number of believers.

Again, it is written in the Book of Wisdom (vi, 26), “In a multitude of counsellors, there is wisdom.” These words are interpreted by the interlinear commentary to signify “A multitude of preachers brings health to the whole world.”

St. Paul says (2 Tim. ii. 2), “The things which you heard of me by many witnesses, the same commend to faithful men,” i.e., “men of sound faith” (Gloss) “who shall be fit,” ie., “fitted by their good life, their learning and eloquence” (Gloss), “to teach others.” In other words, “the office of preaching ought to be committed to those capable of fulfilling it” (Gloss).

Again, the Gloss has the following comment on the words of Esdras (1 Esd. iii.), “all that were come from captivity to Jerusalem”: “Not only is it the duty of, bishops and priests to build up the house of God, whereby is signified His faithful people; but the people themselves, who are called out of captivity into Jerusalem, the vision of peace, ought likewise to require ministry of the Word from those who know how to preach.” @@ -287,7 +287,7 @@

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The necessity for priests devoted to the ministry of preaching is, furthermore, shown by the great ignorance prevailing in some places amongst many of the clergy, some of whom know not even how to speak in Latin. It is rare to find any who are conversant with the Scriptures. Yet a knowledge of the holy writings is essential to those who would preach the word of God. Hence if preaching be entrusted solely to parish priests, the faithful will be greatly the losers. The ignorance which prevails among the clergy is also most detrimental in the duty of hearing confissions. For, as St. Augustine says (De Penitentia), “If any man desires to confess his sins, let him seek out a priest who knows how to bind and to loose. For if he be negligent in the matter, he may be neglected by Him who incites him and moves him to seek for mercy; and so both may fall into the ditch which, in his folly, he strove not to avoid.”

Additional priests, deputed to preach, and to act as confessors, are likewise called for, on account of the great multitude of souls often committed to the care of one pastor. For, were some parish priests to devote their whole lives to the task, they would scarcely be able to hear the confessions of all their flock. It happens likewise that some of the faithful, having no opportunity of confessing to any save to their parish priest, will abstain altogether from confession. For they are ashamed to acknowledge their sins to those whom they see every day. Sometimes, again, they fancy that the priest is unfriendly to them, and the like. Hence bishops act very judiciously in providing them with other confessors, and thus preserving them from despair,

5. The foregoing reflections naturally lead us to consider the expediency of a religious order being instituted for the express purpose of assisting parish priests in preaching and hearing confessions. Episcopal permission would, of course, be needed to authorise the brethren of such an order to undertake their duties. -

Every religious order is based on the model of the Apostolic life. We are told that the Apostles practised community of life: “all things were common to them “ (Acts iv). The Gloss says that “the word ‘common’ is, in Greek, rendered by caena, or common meal, whence come the words cenobites, i.e. dwellers in common, and cenobia, i.e. common dwelling places.” The Apostles practised this mode of life, in order that leaving all things, they might be at liberty to preach the Gospel throughout the world. For the same reason, they prescribed this common life to their successors. Hence a religious order is peculiarly well adapted to the office of preaching. +

Every religious order is based on the model of the Apostolic life. We are told that the Apostles practised community of life: “all things were common to them “(Acts iv). The Gloss says that “the word ‘common’ is, in Greek, rendered by caena, or common meal, whence come the words cenobites, i.e. dwellers in common, and cenobia, i.e. common dwelling places.” The Apostles practised this mode of life, in order that leaving all things, they might be at liberty to preach the Gospel throughout the world. For the same reason, they prescribed this common life to their successors. Hence a religious order is peculiarly well adapted to the office of preaching.

St. James says, “Religion pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this, to visit the orphan and the widow in their tribulation.” The most necessary form of visiting those in affliction, is that which is practised by such as labour for the salvation of souls. A religious order may then with great advantage, be instituted with this object in view that its members may seek out such as are in trouble, and encourage them to have patience, and to hope in, the promises of Scripture.

In the interlinear commentary we find, on the words, “It is not fit that we should leave the word of God and serve tables (Acts vi. 2), the following observation: “Food for the soul is better than banquets for the body.” Now certain orders have already been instituted for the purpose of assisting men in their corporeal needs; it is still more fitting that another order should be established, to minister to their spiritual wants.” St, Augustine says: “It is better to nourish the soul that will live for ever with the Lord, than the body which must decay in death. The health of the body depends upon the condition of the soul; but the soul’s health does not depend upon bodily constitution.”

It is more seemly for a religious to fight with spiritual weapons, than with sword and shield. But there are already in existence several military orders. It is therefore expedient that an order should be founded for the purposes of spiritual warfare. The religious of such an order ought, principally to preach the gospel, according to the exhortation of St, Paul, “Labour like a good soldier of Christ” (2 Tim ii. 3), “by preaching the gospel against the enemies of the Faith,” as the Gloss explains. @@ -314,7 +314,7 @@

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The argument, that, a monk, having no power to correct others, cannot absolve them, is only true in a very limited sense. For, though monks have not this power in an ordinary way, they are able, by the commission of a bishop, both to correct and to absolve. The Demophilus to whom Dionysius wrote the words quoted was not a priest, nor even a deacon. This is clear from the Epistle quoted by our adversaries.

The same answer must be returned to the objection that, if religious can hear confessions anywhere, they can do so everywhere, and thus they become rulers of the Universal Church. Monks, on their own authority, can hear confessions nowhere. They can act as confessors only where they are commissioned to do so; and if the Head of the Church give them permission to hear confessions everywhere, they can do so everywhere. This, however, does not constitute them governors of the Church, since they absolve sinners, not by their own power, but by the authority delegated to them. The Pope is not styled universal Bishop, not because he does not possess complete and direct power over every diocese in the Church, but because he does not rule any particular diocese as its peculiar and special pastor. Were he to do so, the powers of the other bishops would lapse. This reason is given in the chapter quoted.

The arguments brought as proofs that religious cannot, even with episcopal permission, preach or bear confessions, are easily answered. The proposition, that what a man gives away he does not still possess, does not hold good in things spiritual. These are communicated, not like physical things, by the transference of some dominion over them, but rather by an emanation of an effect from its cause. When one man communicates knowledge to another, he does not, on this account, deprive himself of this knowledge; for it remains in his power. In the same way, he that confers some power upon another, does not, by doing so, deprive himself of that power. A bishop does not, by conferring on a priest the power to consecrate the Body of the Lord, cease to be able himself to do so. St. Augustine, treating of the communication of spiritual things, says (I De Doctrina Christiana) “Everything that is not lessened by being imparted. is not, if it be possessed without being communicated, possessed as it ought to be possessed.” In like manner, when a bishop confers upon a priest the power of absolving, he does not himself lose that power, unless the power of a priest in his parish is considered similar to that of a soldier in his town. This idea is, of course, ridiculous; for priests are not masters, but servants. “Let a man so account of us as of the ministers of Christ,” St. Paul writes (1 Cor. iv. 1). Our Lord, also, said to His Apostles, “The Kings of the Gentiles lord it, over them: but you not so: but 1e that is the greater among you, let him become as the least: and he who is the leader, as he who serves” Luke xxii, 25). -

The statement that a bishop, by committing the care of a parish to a priest, relieves himself of all responsibility connected with it, is untrue. For, a bishop is still answerable for the care of all the souls in his diocese (Quaest. I, Cap. Quaecumque). Hence St. Paul, after speaking of all his labours, concludes by saying, “Besides those things that are without: my daily instance, the care of all the churches “ (2 Cor. xi. 28). His burden, however, is rendered supportable to a bishop, because he has assistants of an inferior rank. But, even granted that a bishop, by committing a parish to a priest, relieves himself of its responsibility, it would not, on that account, follow that he would abrogate his power in that parish. For, the ministers of Christ are able to labour for the salvation of the faithful, not only by freeing themselves from responsibility, but likewise by increasing their own merit, and producing greater fruit among souls. Thus St. Paul undertook much work for the salvation of the elect, which he might, without any danger to his salvation, have omitted. +

The statement that a bishop, by committing the care of a parish to a priest, relieves himself of all responsibility connected with it, is untrue. For, a bishop is still answerable for the care of all the souls in his diocese (Quaest. I, Cap. Quaecumque). Hence St. Paul, after speaking of all his labours, concludes by saying, “Besides those things that are without: my daily instance, the care of all the churches “(2 Cor. xi. 28). His burden, however, is rendered supportable to a bishop, because he has assistants of an inferior rank. But, even granted that a bishop, by committing a parish to a priest, relieves himself of its responsibility, it would not, on that account, follow that he would abrogate his power in that parish. For, the ministers of Christ are able to labour for the salvation of the faithful, not only by freeing themselves from responsibility, but likewise by increasing their own merit, and producing greater fruit among souls. Thus St. Paul undertook much work for the salvation of the elect, which he might, without any danger to his salvation, have omitted.

The argument that a priest is subject to a bishop, just as, a bishop is under an archbishop, is not quite correct. For an archbishop has not immediate jurisdiction over an episcopal diocese, except in matters specially referred to him. Thus an archbishop cannot summon before him, or excommunicate, one who is the subject of a bishop. A bishop, on the other hand, has immediate jurisdiction over his parochial clergy; he can cite any of them to appear before him; and he has power to excommunicate them. The reason of this distinction is that the power of a priest is imperfect compared to that of a bishop; priests are by divine right subject to bishops, as Dionysius proves. The subjection of a bishop to an archbishop depends only on an ecclesiastical ordinance and is limited by it. But a priest, being by divine right subject to a bishop, is subject to him in all things. The jurisdiction of a bishop over his priests resembles in kind that of the Sovereign Pontiff over all Christendom. For the Roman Church has not been given supremacy over other churches by the decrees of any synod, but by the words of our Lord and Saviour Himself (In Drcretis, Distinct. XXI, Cap. Quamvis).

To the argument that parish priests are the bridegrooms of the churches committed to them, we answer that strictly speaking, the Spouse of the Church is Christ, of whom are spoken the words, “He who has the bride is the bridegroom” (John iii. 29). He, by His Church, begets children to bear His name. The other so-called spouses are in reality the servants of the Bridegroom, who co-operate with him exteriorly in this work of spiritual generation, but who do not beget spiritual children for themselves. Although they are but ministers, they are termed spouses, because they take the place of the true Spouse. Hence the Pope, who is the vicegerent of Christ throughout the entire Church, is called the spouse of the universal Church. In like manner a bishop is termed the spouse of his diocese, and a priest of his parish. But at the same time the Pope is the spouse of every diocese and the bishop is the spouse of all parishes within his see. But it does not follow from these words that there is in one church a plurality of spouses. For priests assist their bishop in his work, and bishops cooperate with the Pope; he finally is the direct minister to Christ. Thus, Christ, the Pope, the bishops, and the priests are but the one spouse of the Church. Hence the fact that the Pope or the bishop hear the confessions of the faithful of a parish, or commit this office to another, is not proof that one church possesses a plurality of spouses. True plurality would consist in the appointment of two ecclesiastics of the same rank to the same office. Hence were there two bishops in one diocese, or two parish priests in one parish, there would be the plurality forbidden by the canons.

We must next answer the proposition that not even Papal permission can authorise religious to preach or to hear confessions. @@ -324,7 +324,7 @@

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The argument that when a sovereign grants to a subject permission to make a will, it is with the understanding that such a will is only to be made in an ordinary and legal manner, holds good with regard to the Pope. When the sovereign Pontiff commissions anyone to preach and hear confessions, he only allows him to do so in a legitimate way; his preaching must be unto edification. But, if a man hold a commission from the Pope to preach, he need not, in order to preach lawfully, seek a license from any other superior. Such a course would stultify the authority of the Pope. A man who has obtained permission from his Sovereign to make a will, need not have another license from anyone else. All that is required of him is, to make his will in due form. A preacher licensed by the Pope requires no other authorisation. He need only observe the proper rules of preaching, such as that of using one style in addressing the poor, and another in speaking to the rich, and such other points as are mentioned by St. Gregory in Pastorale.

When it is urged that a monk does not, at his ordination, receive power to exercise his priestly office unless he be placed in charge of souls, we reply, by reminding those who make this objection that the priesthood is instituted for two ends. Its first and principal end is the true consecration of the Body of Christ. Power to accomplish this end is conferred at ordination, unless there be some defect in the administration or in the recipient of this Sacrament. The second end for which the Priesthood is instituted is for the welfare of the mystical body of Christ, by the keys of the Church entrusted to the priest. Power to accomplish this end is not conferred at ordination, unless the priest ordained be placed in charge of souls or unless this power be given him by the authority of someone who has the care of souls. But the power of the priesthood is never given in vain; for every priest has power to fulfil the principal purpose of his ordination. But the power of preaching is bestowed for no end, save for that of preaching. Hence as a privilege conferred by a sovereign, cannot be useless to him on whom it is bestowed; so, when the Pope gives to any priest a commission to preach, he has power to execute such a commission. Nevertheless, the Pope, by so acting, does not give to a religious the office of preaching, but rather the power to exercise such an office. For religious do not, as we have said, make use of their own power in preaching; they use the power entrusted to them by another.

The words quoted from I, quaest. de Doctrina were written by Dionysius of lay monks, i.e., of monks who are neither bishops, priests nor deacons, But, even if they be applied to all religious, the Pope, by sending monks to preach, would not be disturbing the order of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. For, as we have said before, he who is of an inferior rank can exercise an office belonging to a higher grade, thus imitating the action of the celestial hierarchy. Furthermore, in the ecclesiastical hierarchy those of a lower order can be promoted to a higher rank. This cannot take place in the heavenly hierarchy. Hence Pope Innocent III, before a General council, sent some Cistercian monks to preach at Toulouse. -

The last objection, brought against religious who preach, is that it is ambition on their part to seek permission to exercise this office. This is untrue, for a desire to preach inspired by charity is on the contrary praiseworthy. Isaiah (vi. 8) offered himself to the Lord, saying: “Lo: here I am: send me.” This function may likewise be meritoriously declined out of humility. Thus Jeremiah said (i. 6): “Ah, ah, ah, Lord God, I cannot speak, for I am a child.” This is evident from the Gloss of St. Gregory. The same view is found in VIII, quaest. I, cap. In scripturis. We must remember that ecclesiastical offices are accompanied both by dignity and by labour. Therefore, they may, on account of their dignity, be declined; and they may be desired, for the sake of the work. “ If a man desire the office of bishop, he desires a good thing,” says St. Paul (1 Tim. iii, 1). On these words St. Augustine says (XIX De civitate Dei), “The Apostle desired to explain what is meant by the episcopate and how far it may be desired, for the name implies labour not glory “ (cf. VIII quaest. I, qui episcopatum, also the Gloss on the same text). Hence if the labours of the episcopate be distinguished from its attendant dignity, it may laudably and without danger of ambition be desired. In like manner, a religious who seeks from a parish priest or a bishop permission to preach shows not that he is inspired by ambition, but that he is filled with the love of God and of his neighbour. +

The last objection, brought against religious who preach, is that it is ambition on their part to seek permission to exercise this office. This is untrue, for a desire to preach inspired by charity is on the contrary praiseworthy. Isaiah (vi. 8) offered himself to the Lord, saying: “Lo: here I am: send me.” This function may likewise be meritoriously declined out of humility. Thus Jeremiah said (i. 6): “Ah, ah, ah, Lord God, I cannot speak, for I am a child.” This is evident from the Gloss of St. Gregory. The same view is found in VIII, quaest. I, cap. In scripturis. We must remember that ecclesiastical offices are accompanied both by dignity and by labour. Therefore, they may, on account of their dignity, be declined; and they may be desired, for the sake of the work. “If a man desire the office of bishop, he desires a good thing,” says St. Paul (1 Tim. iii, 1). On these words St. Augustine says (XIX De civitate Dei), “The Apostle desired to explain what is meant by the episcopate and how far it may be desired, for the name implies labour not glory “(cf. VIII quaest. I, qui episcopatum, also the Gloss on the same text). Hence if the labours of the episcopate be distinguished from its attendant dignity, it may laudably and without danger of ambition be desired. In like manner, a religious who seeks from a parish priest or a bishop permission to preach shows not that he is inspired by ambition, but that he is filled with the love of God and of his neighbour.

CHAPTER 4

Are Religious Bound to Manual Labour? @@ -338,7 +338,7 @@

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Again, religious ought to be always eager to make spiritual progress. As St. Paul expresses it, they ought to be “zealous for the better gifts” (1 Cor. xii. 31). Now St. Augustine, in his book, De opere monachorum, says that “religious who labour with their hands are preferable to those who do not work.” And, in the commentary on the words (Acts xx.): “It is more blessed to give than to receive,” the Gloss observes: “They receive the greatest glory who, having abandoned all that they possessed, labour in order to be able to supply the necessities of those in want.” Therefore, all religious ought to endeavour to work with their hands.

St. Augustine, in the book already quoted, calls those monks who will not work, “contumacious.” He adds: “Who can bear to hear those who contumaciously resist the Apostolic precept not merely excused on account of infirmity, but praised for their holiness? “Contumacy is a mortal sin; else the Church would not visit it with excommunication. Hence no religious, can, without risk of sinning mortally, exempt himself from the duty of manual labour.

Further, if religious be dispensed from work, the dispensation ought to be granted in order to give them opportunity for sacred psalmody, for prayer, for preaching, and for reading. But, it is not for these reasons that religious are exempted from labour. Therefore, they are bound to work. St. Augustine, in his book De opere monachorum, proves this obligation in the following words: “How do they employ themselves who will not labour with their hands? Gladly would I know what they do? They say that they devote themselves to psalmody, to prayer, to reading and to the Word of God.” The author then proceeds to examine each of these excuses. Speaking of prayer, he says: “One prayer from the lips of an obedient man will be heard more speedily than ten made by one that is scornful.” He, thus insinuates that he who will not work with his hands is proud and unworthy of being listened to by God. Next, speaking of those who say that instead of labouring they are singing sacred canticles, he says: “It is easy to chant and to work at the same time.” He then asks, “What is to prevent a servant of God, while employed in labour, from meditating on the law of the ‘Lord, and singing to the name of the Most High?” Thirdly, referring to reading, he says: “Do not they who say that they devote their time to reading find in the Scriptures the Apostolic precept to work? How great is their perversity! These men wish to read, but will not heed what is written. They desire to prolong the time for reading what is virtuous, but they will not accomplish the good works of which they read. Who does not know that he makes the most profit by his reading who is the swiftest to put it into practice?” Fourthly, the saint remarks about preaching: “Although one monk may have to preach, and therefore may not have time for work, all the brethren in the monastery cannot preach. If then they cannot all preach, why, on the pretext of preaching, should they all leave their work? But, even supposing that they can all preach, they ought to do so in turn, both in order that some may be left to do the necessary work, and because one speaker suffices to many listeners.” -

It is noticeable that on this point those who have once forsaken the beaten track of truth have, in their efforts to avoid one error, fallen into a contrary mistake. There was once among certain monks an erroneous idea that manual labour was detrimental to religious perfection, because it hindered religious from casting all their care upon God and thus from fulfilling our Lord’s behest: “Be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on” (Matt. vi. 25). But they who hold this opinion must, for the sake of consistency, deny that the Apostles laboured with their hands. They must interpret the words of St. Paul, “ if any man will not work, neither shall he eat,” as referring not to physical, but to spiritual labours. Otherwise the Apostolic precept would be opposed to the evangelical command. St. Augustine in his book De opere monacorum, which was written to confute this error (as he tells us in his book of Retractations), clearly proves that it is contraxy to the teaching of Holy Scripture. On the strength of this verdict, other captious men have diaseminated an error of a precisely contrary nature, teaching that religious are, unless engaged in manual labour, living in a state of damnation. The Gloss terms the upholders of this opinion friends and sup porters of Pharaoh, who said: “Why do you, Moses and Aaron, draw off the people from their works?” (Exod. v. 4). It makes the following commentary on the text: “If, today Moses and Aaron, by whom is signified the word of a prophet or a preacher, should stir up men’s hearts to leave the world and to renounce all that they possess in order to devote themselves to the service of God, and to the study of His law and word, the friends of Pharaoh would immediately exclaim: “See how men are led away, and youths persuaded to forsake work and military service and everything useful, in order to spend their time in idleness and folly. For what is their service to God? A pretext for idleness? Such were the words of Pharaoh, and thus do his friends still speak.” +

It is noticeable that on this point those who have once forsaken the beaten track of truth have, in their efforts to avoid one error, fallen into a contrary mistake. There was once among certain monks an erroneous idea that manual labour was detrimental to religious perfection, because it hindered religious from casting all their care upon God and thus from fulfilling our Lord’s behest: “Be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on” (Matt. vi. 25). But they who hold this opinion must, for the sake of consistency, deny that the Apostles laboured with their hands. They must interpret the words of St. Paul, “if any man will not work, neither shall he eat,” as referring not to physical, but to spiritual labours. Otherwise the Apostolic precept would be opposed to the evangelical command. St. Augustine in his book De opere monacorum, which was written to confute this error (as he tells us in his book of Retractations), clearly proves that it is contraxy to the teaching of Holy Scripture. On the strength of this verdict, other captious men have diaseminated an error of a precisely contrary nature, teaching that religious are, unless engaged in manual labour, living in a state of damnation. The Gloss terms the upholders of this opinion friends and sup porters of Pharaoh, who said: “Why do you, Moses and Aaron, draw off the people from their works?” (Exod. v. 4). It makes the following commentary on the text: “If, today Moses and Aaron, by whom is signified the word of a prophet or a preacher, should stir up men’s hearts to leave the world and to renounce all that they possess in order to devote themselves to the service of God, and to the study of His law and word, the friends of Pharaoh would immediately exclaim: “See how men are led away, and youths persuaded to forsake work and military service and everything useful, in order to spend their time in idleness and folly. For what is their service to God? A pretext for idleness? Such were the words of Pharaoh, and thus do his friends still speak.”

In order to defend the servants of God from persecution of this nature, we shall now prove that religious are not, except perhaps occasionally, bound to manual labour; moreover, those who do not work with their hands are in a state of salvation.

In the first place, the Gloss, commenting on the words: “Behold the birds of the air” (Matt. vi. 26), says: “The saints are deservedly compared to birds; for they seek Heaven, and they are so far removed from the world that they do no work on earth. They do not labour, but by contemplation dwell in Heaven. Of such may it truly be said: ‘Who are these that fly like clouds?’”

St, Gregory, in the second part of his second homily (super Ezech.), speaks thus: “He who leads a contemplative life, turns his whole mind to the love of God and of his neighbour. He ceases from external work, and is engrossed by a desire for his Creator, which leaves him capable of, no other activity. He forgets all other cares, and yearns only to behold God face to face.” Hence perfectly contemplative souls withdraw themselves from exterior occupations. @@ -353,19 +353,19 @@

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The same remarks apply to those religious who devote themselves to the study of the Holy Scripture. St. Jerome writes, in his epistle to Vigilantius: “The custom prevailed in Judeea, and is still extant in our time, that those who possessed nothing on earth, whose only portion was the Lord, and who meditated day and night on His law, were maintained by the synagogues, and by the good offices of all mankind.” Hence we see that there is no obligation to labour incumbent on all religious.

Spiritual profit is always to be preferred to temporal advantage. Now those who minister to the public welfare by the preservation of temporal peace are justly paid a stipend which enables them to live. St. Paul says (Rom. xiii. 6), “This is why you pay tribute. For they are the ministers of God, serving unto this purpose” (“by fighting for their country” says the Gloss). Hence they who minister to the spiritual necessities of the state, either by preaching or expounding the Scriptures or assisting in the public prayers of the Church, have a far better right to be supported by the contributions of the faithful. They are, therefore, not bound to manual labour.

St. Augustine observes, again, in his book De opere monachorum that St. Paul worked with his hands in those places (of which one was Corinth) in which he was accustomed to preach to the Jews only on the Sabbath day. But when he was at Athens and preached daily, he lived not by his labour, but by the alms brought to him by the brethren from Macedonia. Hence we see that the function of preaching is not to be set aside for the sake of manual labour. Those men, therefore, who whether by commission from a superior or of their own right, are able to preach daily or otherwise to minister to souls, ought to abstain from manual work. -

Further, works of mercy are preferable to physical labour. St. Paul says, (1 Tim. iv. 8), “ For bodily exercise is profitable to little; but godliness is profitable to all things.” But, even works of fraternal charity must give place to the exercise of preaching. “It is not fit that we should leave the word of God to serve at tables” (Acts vi. 2). “Leave the dead to bury their dead, but you go and preach the Kingdom of God” (Luke ix. 60). On this the Gloss observes: “The Lord teaches us to forego lesser advantages for the sake greater ones. It is more profitable to raise souls, by preacching, from the death of sin than to bury dead bodies in the earth.” Hence manual labour may lawfully be neglected for the sake of preaching. +

Further, works of mercy are preferable to physical labour. St. Paul says, (1 Tim. iv. 8), “For bodily exercise is profitable to little; but godliness is profitable to all things.” But, even works of fraternal charity must give place to the exercise of preaching. “It is not fit that we should leave the word of God to serve at tables” (Acts vi. 2). “Leave the dead to bury their dead, but you go and preach the Kingdom of God” (Luke ix. 60). On this the Gloss observes: “The Lord teaches us to forego lesser advantages for the sake greater ones. It is more profitable to raise souls, by preacching, from the death of sin than to bury dead bodies in the earth.” Hence manual labour may lawfully be neglected for the sake of preaching.

It is impossible, at the same time, both to gain a livelihood by work and to carry on a systematic study of Holy Scripture. St. Gregory, expounding Exod. xxv., “The bars shall be always in the rings,” says: “It is above all necessary that they who are destined for preaching should be unremitting in their studies, so that although they are not always preaching, they may always be prepared to preach.” Hence those whose duty it is to preach, whether by their own authority, as is the case with bishops, or by the commission of prelates, ought to set aside manual labour for the sake of study.

There are some words in the prologue of St. Jerome’s commentary on the book of Job, which show clearly that religious are justified in neglecting bodily labour for the sake of studying Holy Scripture: “Were I to spend my time in weaving baskets or plaiting palm branches in order to eat my bread in the sweat of my brow, no one would reproach me for my anxiety to supply my material wants. Now however that, in obedience to the admonition of Our Saviour, I labour for a meat that doth not perish, and strive to clear the sacred volume from the errors that have accumulated therein, I am reproached with having committed a double fault.” Later on he adds, “Therefore, my brethren, please accept these spiritual and durable gifts in lieu of fans, baskets and other little monastic presents.” Thus, we see that the monk St. Jerome was rebuked by envious tongues for preferring the study of Holy Scripture to manual labour. His example may profitably be followed by religious, in spite of the complaints uttered against them by their detractors.

St, Augustine further says in his book De opere monachorum: “They who have renounced all their possessions and distributed their fortune, whatever it may be, among the needy, and with pious humility desire, to be enrolled among the poor of Christ, can perform a work of mercy even greater than that of dividing their substance among those in want. For, if they are not hindered by ecclesiastical labours and have sufficient strength to work, by manual labour they will set a good example to the idle.” Hence we see that religious are dispensed from the duty of bodily toil, either by infirm health or by ecclesiastical business. Now of all clerical duties, preaching is the noblest and most useful. “Let the priests who rule well be esteemed worthy of double honour, especially those who labour in the word and doctrine” (1 Tim v. 11). Therefore, religious who are engaged in preaching ought not to be employed in bodily labour.

It only, now, remains for us to answer the arguments brought forward in favour of the contrary opinion. The first argument brought against us is that manual labour is an Apostolic precept. To this objection we reply that it is a precept not of positive right, but of the natural law. This is clear from the words of St. Paul (2 Thes. iii. 6), “Withdraw yourselves from every brother living disorderly,” which the Gloss interprets to mean, “who lives not according to the law of nature.” The Apostle is speaking of such as will not work. Now the very constitution of our bodies teaches us that nature intends us to labour. We are not provided with raiment, as other animals are furnished with hides. Neither has nature given us weapons, like the horns which she has bestowed on cattle; nor the claws wherewith lions defend themselves. Nor is any food, save milk, supplied naturally to us, as Avicenna remarks. In lieu of the gifts bestowed upon other animals, man is endowed with reason, which teaches him to supply his needs, and with hands wherewith he can carry out the dictates of reason, as Aristotle says (XIV De animal.). As the precepts of the natural law regard all men without distinction, the law of manual labour does not apply more to religious than to others. Nevertheless, it is not true that all men ere bound to work with their hands. There are certain laws of nature which, in their observance, are of profit to none save to the one who obeys them. Such is the law obliging man to eat. These laws must be obeyed by every individual man. Other natural laws, e.g. that of reproduction, regard not only the man who obeys them, but are advantageous to the whole human race. It is not necessary that all these laws should be obeyed by every individual; for no single man is competent to perform all the activities which are needed for the continuation of the human race. One individual would not suffice for the different works of reproduction, of invention, of architecture, of agriculture, or for the other functions which must be exercised for the continuance of the human race. To supply the needs common to all mankind one individual must assist another, just as in the body one limb is subserved by another. It is in allusion to this mutual service which men are bound to render to each other that St. Paul says: “We are each members of one another” (Rom. ‘xii. 5). The differences existing among men, and enabling them to devote themselves to different occupations, are to be attributed primarily to Divine Providence, and secondarily to natural causes, whereby certain men are disposed to the performauce of certain functions in preference to others. -

Hence we see that no man is bound to any particuar work, unless necessity obliges him to it, and unless no one else will accomplish it for him. For example, if a man be constrained by necessity to dwell in a house which no one will build for him, he must build it for himself. With regard, therefore, to manual labour, I maintain that it is not incumbent upon anyone unless he be in want of something which must be produced by such labour, and which he cannot, without sin, procure from any other man. For we are said to be able to do anything when we can lawfully do it. This appears from the words of St. Paul (1 Cor. iv. 12). “We labour, working with our own hands,” “because “ (comments the Gloss) “no one will supply our necessities.” Hence the Apostle does not enjoin manual labour as a precept on any, save on those who choose to gain their living by sin, rather than by work. Nor can it be proved that anyone, be he layman or religious, is bound to manual labour, except to save himself from death by starvation, or to avoid a sinful mode of gaining a livelihood. +

Hence we see that no man is bound to any particuar work, unless necessity obliges him to it, and unless no one else will accomplish it for him. For example, if a man be constrained by necessity to dwell in a house which no one will build for him, he must build it for himself. With regard, therefore, to manual labour, I maintain that it is not incumbent upon anyone unless he be in want of something which must be produced by such labour, and which he cannot, without sin, procure from any other man. For we are said to be able to do anything when we can lawfully do it. This appears from the words of St. Paul (1 Cor. iv. 12). “We labour, working with our own hands,” “because “(comments the Gloss) “no one will supply our necessities.” Hence the Apostle does not enjoin manual labour as a precept on any, save on those who choose to gain their living by sin, rather than by work. Nor can it be proved that anyone, be he layman or religious, is bound to manual labour, except to save himself from death by starvation, or to avoid a sinful mode of gaining a livelihood.

To the second objection, which is based on the commentary of the Gloss on the words, “If any man will not work, neither let him eat,” we answer that this saying must be understood as referring to physical, as distinguished from spiritual work. It was directed against those who interpreted this passage as signifying spiritual labours only, and as forbidding the servants of God to work. The Gloss corrects this interpretation. St. Augustine likewise finds fault with it, in his book De opere monachorum. But even if the verse, “If anyone will not work neither let him eat” is understood as referring to manual labour, it does not prove that everyone who desires to eat, is bound to work with his hands. Were such a precept of labour universally imposed, it would contradict the words of St. Paul, “we worked day and night; not as if we had not power,” etc. As the Apostle had power to eat without working, the words: “If anyone will not work, neither let him eat” cannot be understood as implying an obligation to work imposed on all mankind. The class of men to whom St. Paul refers becomes quite evident from some other words of his in the same chapter (2 Thes. iii.): “For we have heard there are some among you who walk disorderly, not working at all, but curiously meddling” or, as the Gloss says, “providing themselves with the necessities of life by illicit means.” St. Paul continues, “Such people we instruct and urge to work with silence and eat their own bread.” For one accustomed to gain his living in an unlawful manner ought not to eat if he will not work. The words of the Gloss which follow: “that they may not be compelled by want to beg,” show that labour is not to be imposed upon the servants of God as a necessity, but that it is proposed to them as means of avoiding the evil of compulsory mendicancy. For, it is better for a man to work with his hands than to be reduced, against his will, to beggary. Nor does, it follow that they who profess poverty and who, out of humility, are content to beg, are bound to work with their hands.

To the third objection, we reply that the Apostle has given no absolute precept concerning manual work. He speaks of it as being preferable to theft: “He who stole, let him now steal no more, but rather let him labour with his hands,” etc. Hence as religious can live without stealing, there is no reason why they should be bound to work.

To the fourth objection, our answer is that they who, in obedience to the counsel of our Lord, have sold all things, ought to follow Him. Therefore Peter said: “See, we have left all things and have followed You” etc. (Matt. xix. 27). Now men can follow Christ either by a life of contemplation or by one of action. They are equally His followers who leave all things in order to devote themselves to contemplation, or in order to give material alms, or to bestow spiritual assistance by preaching or teaching. The passage quoted from the Gloss, while it mentions one mode whereby the counsels of our Lord are observed, does not, thereby, intend to exclude the other way, else it would contradict the gospel. For Luke (ix. 59) tells us how our Lord said to a certain man, “Follow Me.” But he to whom He spoke, asked for time to bury his father. Christ answered him: “Let the dead bury their dead; but you go and preach the Kingdom of God.” Thus, it was our Lord’s will that some men, when they had left all things, should follow Him to proclaim the word of God. We can also say that this text, together with all that is contained about it in the Gloss, is a counsel. It is therefore binding only on such who are vowed to its observance.

Our answer to the fifth objection, is that the manual labour of the Apostles was sometimes a matter of necessity, and at other times a work of supererogation. When no one would supply the Apostles with food, they were obliged to work (cf. Gloss on 1 Cor. iv.). But we see in 1 Cor. ix. that at other times manual labour was for them a matter of supererogation. Now there are three reasons for which the Apostles chose to do work that was not a necessity. It was, first, in order to take from those false apostles, who preached only for the sake of temporal gain, the occasion of preaching: “But what I do that I will do that I may cut off the occasion from them,” etc. (2 Cor. xi. 12). Secondly, the Apostles, at times, resorted to manual labour, lest they to whom they preached should, in their avarice, find it a burden to provide for the material needs of those from whom they received spiritual benefits, and lest they should so fall away from the faith. “For what is there that you have had less than the other churches, but that I myself was not burdensome to you” (2 Cor. xii. 13). Thirdly, the Apostles laboured in order to set an example of industry. “We worked night and day, lest we should be chargeable to any of you” (2 Thes. iii. 8). But St. Paul did not work in cities, such as Athens, where he had facilities for preaching daily (see St. Augustine, Do opere momachorum). Hence it is not a matter of salvation for religious to imitate his manual labour, since all works of supererogation are not binding upon them. The other Apostles did not work with their hands except when they were obliged to do so in order to obtain food.

To the sixth objection, we reply that the decree quoted by it refers only to those clerics who are not sufficiently endowed with ecclesiastical revenues, or assisted by the alms of the faithful, to be able to live without working.

We reply to the seventh objection that St. Paul gives to bishops the example of manual labour in those cases in which he himself had recourse to it, e.g., when such labour would not be an obstacle to the performance of their ecclesiastical duties, or when it would cause scandal to recent converts were they to be asked for material assistance. -

Our answer to the eighth objection, is that manual labour, according to the authority of St. Jerome, is performed not only to earn a livelihood, but, likewise to repress dangerous thoughts arising from idleness and self-indulgence. But sloth and the desires of the flesh are overcome not only by bodily toil, but likewise by spiritual exercises. Hence St. Jerome writes: “Love the knowledge of the Scripture, and you will not love the vices of the flesh.” There is no precept enjoining manual labour, if idleness can be avoided by means of spiritual exercises, and if the body is subdued by means of other austerities such as watching, fasting and the like, among which penitential practices St. Paul mentions labour, saying “ in labours, in watching; in fasting” (2 Cor. vi.). The Gloss adds, “in manual labour,” the reason being, “because the Apostle worked with his hands.” +

Our answer to the eighth objection, is that manual labour, according to the authority of St. Jerome, is performed not only to earn a livelihood, but, likewise to repress dangerous thoughts arising from idleness and self-indulgence. But sloth and the desires of the flesh are overcome not only by bodily toil, but likewise by spiritual exercises. Hence St. Jerome writes: “Love the knowledge of the Scripture, and you will not love the vices of the flesh.” There is no precept enjoining manual labour, if idleness can be avoided by means of spiritual exercises, and if the body is subdued by means of other austerities such as watching, fasting and the like, among which penitential practices St. Paul mentions labour, saying “in labours, in watching; in fasting” (2 Cor. vi.). The Gloss adds, “in manual labour,” the reason being, “because the Apostle worked with his hands.”

We reply to the ninth objection that at times it is advisable to work with the hands, and at other times it is better not to work in this manner. When manual labour does not call a man away from some more useful occupation, it is very praiseworthy, as a means both of self-support, and of charity to those in need. It is especially to be counselled, in cases wherein those weak in faith or but recently converted would be scandalised if preachers, instead of earning their own livelihood, were to live on the alms of the faithful. It was on such occasions (as the Gloss remarks) that St. Paul had recourse to manual labour (1 Cor. ix.). When, however, such labour hinders a man from engaging in more useful occupation, it is better to set it aside. This lesson is given us by the commentary of the Gloss on the words, “Leave the dead to bury their dead” (Luke ix), and also by the example of St. Paul, who ceased to work when he had an opportunity of preaching. Manual labour is naturally a greater hindrance to modern preachers than to those of the Apostolic age. For the Apostles were taught by the immediate inspiration of the Holy Spirit, whereas in our time preachers must prepare themselves for their office by constant study, as is evidenced by St. Gregory in the words already given.

To the tenth objection, we reply that the monks whom St, Augustine condemns as contumacious, belong to the class which, according to the Apostolic precept, is bound to work, and which St. Paul says is worthy of excommunication (2 Thes. iii.). Men of this description refuse to work, because they prefer to live in sloth, and to get their living by illicit means. That St. Augustine clearly refers to this class of person, appears in the words wherein he assigns a reason why those who leave an agricultural life in order to enter religion, ought to employ themselves in physical labour. He says that such men should work with their hands, because it is difficult to tell whether they become religious for the purpose of serving God, or in order to escape from a toilsome and penurious condition to a state, wherein they may be clothed and fed, living in idleness and honoured by those who, hitherto, have despised them and considered them nothing. Such men, evidently, belong to the class denounced by the Apostle as slothful, and urged by him to work in silence and eat their own bread.” St. Augustine accuses them of contumacy, chiefly because, perverting the words of St. Paul, they maintain that it is not lawful for the servants of God to work with their hands.

Our answer to the eleventh objection, is that by the spiritual works to which this objection refers, may be understood either the spiritual exercises that are for the common good, or such as are profitable to individuals. A man may either join in the prayers and psalmody of the Divine Office, and thus perform a work destined for the public edification of the Church, or he may, as do many laymen, occupy himself in private devotions. It is of the latter class that St. Augustine is speaking in the passage quoted in this objection. He is not alluding to those engaged in the public functions of the Church. This is clear from the words which follow. They can, he says, at the same time sing sacred canticles and work with their hands, after the example of craftsmen, who tell each other stories and listen with great attention, yet without ceasing to work. This conduct would not be permissible to such as are reciting the canonical hours. Again, reading may be, for some religious, a public duty, for they may have either to teach or to attend lectures in the schools as masters and scholars, either religious or secular. It may, on the other hand, be a private occupation, as is the study of the Scriptures prosecuted by monks in the cloister for their own consolation. St. Augustine recognises this distinction, and in the passage quoted as an objection, he speaks not of monks engaged in teaching or lecturing, but of such as “say that they devote their time to reading.” @@ -377,13 +377,13 @@

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THE enemies of truth are not satisfied with the many false assertions which we have hitherto employed ourselves in disproving. They proceed still further. They, endeavour to overthrow the very basis of all religious life, namely, the practice of poverty established by our Lord. They affirm that it is unlawful for religious to abandon all their possessions, in order to enter a religious order, owning neither property nor income. The only reason, they say, which can justify such a step is the intention of doing manual work. They quote as an authority for this assertion the words of Prov. xxx. 8, “Give me neither beggary, nor riches; give me only the necessities of life; lest perhaps being filled, I should be tempted to deny; or, being compelled by poverty, I should steal, and forswear the name of God.” Those who leave all things, and enter a religious order which is destitute of all possessions abandon their means of subsistence and expose themselves to beggary. This is particularly the case with those who have not the intention of working with their hands. They, therefore, who act thus are liable to be tempted to steal and to abjure the name of God.

In Eccles. vii. 12 we read again, “Wisdom with riches is more profitable,” i,e., than wisdom alone. Hence it is reprehensible to choose wisdom without riches by abandoning the means of support, in order to gain wisdom. Again we are told that “through poverty many have sinned” (Sirach xxvii. 1). The Gloss interprets these words, as meaning poverty of heart and of work. Now if every occasion of sin is to be avoided, no man ought to reduce himself to poverty by parting with all his goods.

St. Paul gives to the Corinthians the following rule concerning almsgiving: “If eagerness is there, it is acceptable according to what a man has, not according to what he does no have. I do no mean that others should be eased, and you burdened” (2 Cor. viii. 12). The Gloss interprets this text to mean that a man must keep for himself the necessities of life, and that if he bring on himself poverty, he is giving beyond his means. Hence those who abandon all their possessions are giving alms inordinately, and in a manner contrary to the Apostolic rule. -

The Gloss has the following comment on the words of St. Paul (1 Thess. v. 12), “We beseech you brethren to respect” etc.: “ Riches beget carelessness about salvation. Penury also causes men to forsake justice in their efforts to acquire wealth.” Now they who give up all that they possess in order to become religious reduce themselves to excessive poverty. Thus they lay themselves open to a temptation to depart from justice. Again on the words of the same Apostle, “but having food and wherewith to be covered” (1 Tim. vi. 8), the Gloss says: “Although we have brought nothing into the world, and shall take nothing out of it, temporal possessions are not to be entirely rejected.” Therefore, he who casts aside all material wealth in order to go into religion acts inordinately. +

The Gloss has the following comment on the words of St. Paul (1 Thess. v. 12), “We beseech you brethren to respect” etc.: “Riches beget carelessness about salvation. Penury also causes men to forsake justice in their efforts to acquire wealth.” Now they who give up all that they possess in order to become religious reduce themselves to excessive poverty. Thus they lay themselves open to a temptation to depart from justice. Again on the words of the same Apostle, “but having food and wherewith to be covered” (1 Tim. vi. 8), the Gloss says: “Although we have brought nothing into the world, and shall take nothing out of it, temporal possessions are not to be entirely rejected.” Therefore, he who casts aside all material wealth in order to go into religion acts inordinately.

On the words of Jesus Christ,” he who has two coats, let him give to him that has none” (Luke iii, 11), the Gloss says: “We are commanded to divide two cloaks; for if one were divided it would clothe no one. Hence we see that charity must be proportioned to the capability of our human condition, and that no one should render himself entirely destitute, but that he should rather divide what he has with the poor.” Hence to give away everything in alms, and to keep nothing for ourselves, is unreasonable and inordinate conduct. It is, therefore, sinful.

In Luke (xii. 29), we read, “Do not seek for what you shall eat.” The Gloss remarks: “Our Lord does not forbid us to reserve money for our own necessities; for He Himself had a purse. Unless such provision for ourselves were right, it would be forbidden, and Christ would have kept nothing for Himself.” Hence it must be virtuous and fitting to retain some portion of our property, instead of renouncing the whole.

It is an act of prodigality to give away both what ought and what ought not to be given. He who gives away everything gives what ought not to be given, but ought to be retained. Thus he sins by prodigality.

In his epistle to the Romans (xii. 1), St. Paul speaks of “your reasonable service.” The Gloss says that reasonable service consists “in the avoidance of extremes.” But, to give away everything is to give too much, and therefore it is to exceed the medium of liberality, which consists in “giving enough, and keeping enough.” Hence he who gives up everything to go into religion, does not offer a reasonable service to God.

God has given us this commandment (Exod. xx. 13), “You shall not kill,” i.e., says the Gloss, “by depriving another of the means of life which you dost owe him.” Now as temporal possessions are “the means of life,” and as we “owe” the means of subsistence, in the first place, to ourselves, he who deprives himself of all material possessions sins against the commandment, “You shall not kill,” by depriving himself of the means of living. -

It was better with those who were slain by the sword, than with those who died with hunger “ (Lam. iv. 9). Hence it is more iniquitous to expose ourselves to death by starvation than to destruction by violence. “It is not lawful for a man to act thus when he can, without sin, act otherwise,” says St. Augustine. Much less then is it, permitted to us to expose ourselves through starvation, by parting with all that we possess, and retaining nothing. +

It was better with those who were slain by the sword, than with those who died with hunger “(Lam. iv. 9). Hence it is more iniquitous to expose ourselves to death by starvation than to destruction by violence. “It is not lawful for a man to act thus when he can, without sin, act otherwise,” says St. Augustine. Much less then is it, permitted to us to expose ourselves through starvation, by parting with all that we possess, and retaining nothing.

Again, a man is more bound to preserve his own life, than to care for another. Now it would be sinful, to deprive another man of all means of subsistence, and thus to cause him to perish. “The bread of the needy is the life of the poor: he who defrauds them of it is a man of blood” (Eccles. xxxiv. 25). Therefore, he who gives away his all and retires into a religious order which has no common property sins by suicide.

The life of Christ is the example of perfection. But, we read that our Lord had a purse (John vii), and again that His disciples went into a city to buy bread (John iv.). Hence the entire renunciation of all property cannot be perfect.

Further, the observances of the religious orders originated in the Apostolic mode of life. For, as St. Jerome says in his book De illustribus viris, all Christians of the primitive Church resembled the most perfect religious of our day. We are informed of the same fact by the book In collationibus Patrum, and also by the Gloss on the words (Acts iv.), “the multitude of those who believed.” But this same chapter of the Acts also states that in the Apostolic times the faithful had all things in common, and that there was no one needy among them. They, therefore, who relinquish their possessions and, having no common property, are bound to be destitute, lead not a religious, but a superstitious life. @@ -401,18 +401,18 @@

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(3rd) We shall make it evident that manual labour is not essential to perfection, even where men possess nothing.

(4th) We shall refute the arguments whereby our adversaries seek to maintain their errors.

1. In order to prove that evangelical poverty requires, not only habitual, but likewise actual poverty, we will remind our readers of the words: “If you would be perfect, go, sell all” etc. (Matt xix. 21). Now he who sells all that he has and distributes it to the poor practises not merely habitual, but likewise actual poverty. Hence actual poverty is needed for evangelical perfection. Again, evangelical perfection consists in the imitation of Christ, who was poor not only in desire, but in fact. The Gloss, on the words, “Go to the sea” (Matt. xvii.) says, “So great was the poverty of the Lord that he had not wherewith to pay the tribute money.” Again, on the words, “the foxes have holes” etc. (Luke ix.), the Gloss says: “our Lord meant to say that His poverty was so extreme that He had no shelter, and no roof to call His own.” We might adduce many other proofs that actual poverty pertains to evangelical perfection. -

The Apostles were mirrors of evangelical perfection. They practised actual poverty, renouncing all that they possessed. “Behold” (said St. Peter) “we have left all things” (Matt. xix. 27). Hence St. Jerome writes to Hebidia: “ Would you be perfect and attain to the highest dignity? Do as the Apostles did. Sell all that you have and give to the poor, and follow our Saviour. Alone, and stripped of all things, follow only the Cross in its bare poverty.” Hence actual poverty forms part of evangelical perfection. +

The Apostles were mirrors of evangelical perfection. They practised actual poverty, renouncing all that they possessed. “Behold” (said St. Peter) “we have left all things” (Matt. xix. 27). Hence St. Jerome writes to Hebidia: “Would you be perfect and attain to the highest dignity? Do as the Apostles did. Sell all that you have and give to the poor, and follow our Saviour. Alone, and stripped of all things, follow only the Cross in its bare poverty.” Hence actual poverty forms part of evangelical perfection.

The Gloss on the words “How hard is for those who have riches” etc. (Mark x. 23), has the following comment: “It is one thing to have money, another to love it. Many possess it without loving it; many love it without possessing it.” Thus, while some men own wealth and love it; others congratulate themselves on neither owning nor loving it, for this is the safer course. Such men can say with the Apostle, “the world is crucified to me, and I to the world.” Hence it is evident that habitual poverty, in conjunction with actual poverty, is preferable to habitual poverty alone. This same remark may be made with reference to the words in Matt. xix. 23, “How hard it is for a rich man enter the Kingdom of Heaven.” The Gloss here observes, “It is safest neither to possess nor to love riches.” “Has not God chosen the poor in this world?” asks St. James (ii. 5). “Those who are poor, in temporal possessions” is the interpretation of these word given by the Gloss. Hence it is those who are actually poor who are chosen by God.

The Gloss on the words, “every one of you who does not renounce everything that he possesses,” observes that “there is a difference between renouncing everything and leaving everything. All who make lawful use of their material possessions renounce them, in so far as their aspirations tend towards such things as are eternal. But those who leave all things act with greater perfection, for they set aside what is temporal in order to seek only what is eternal.” Hence abandonment of all things by actual poverty is a point of evangelical perfection; renunciation of all things by habitual poverty is necessary for salvation.

St. Jerome, in his epistle against Vigilantius, says: “The Lord speaks to him who desires to be perfect and, with the Apostle, leaves father, ship and net. The one you praise is in the second or third rank; for he desires only to give the income of his possessions to the poor. We accept such a one, although we know that the first degree of virtue is preferable to the second or third degree.” From these words, it is plain that they who give all that they possess to the poor, are to be preferred before such as give alms only of their income.

St. Jerome, again, says, in his epistle to the Monk Rusticus: “If you have possessions, sell them and give to the poor. If you do not have them, you are free from a great burden. Therefore, being stripped of all things, you follow Christ in His poverty. This is a hard and painful undertaking; but it is rewarded with a glorious recompense.” For the sake of brevity, we omit many other passages from St. Jerome, all of whic must be understood as referring to actual poverty.

St. Augustine (Gennadius) likewise says in his book De eccles. Dogmaibus: “Though it be a good thing to distribute our riches by degrees among the poor, it is, a better to give all away at once with the intention of following our Lord, in order that free from anxiety, we may share His poverty.”

St. Ambrose, in like manner, says in his book, De Offic.: “Riches will not give us the slightest assistance in attaining to a life of blessedness. This is clearly pointed out by our Lord’s words, “Blessed are you poor, for yours is the Kingdom of God.” And again, he says that “poverty, hunger, pain, and suchlike evils that are borne as evils, are not merely no obstacle to blessedness, but they are clearly pronounced to be aids towards attaining to it.” Now these words cannot be understood as referring to habitual poverty, whereby a man is merely detached from riches; for, riches have never been held by any to be obstacles to happiness. They must, therefore, be understood to refer to actual poverty, whereby all possessions are given up. -

St. Gregory says (in the eighth homily of the second part on Ezech.), “ When a man consecrates to God one thing, but not another, he offers a sacrifice. But, when he gives to God his whole life, with all that he has and all that he loves, he offers a holocaust, which is the most acceptable form of sacrifice.” Hence it is the most perfect work to abandon all that we have for the love of God. St. Gregory likewise says (prolog. Moral.), “While I was still constrained to serve the world in appearance, many temporal anxieties rose up around me and claimed all my attention. At length, escaping from them, I sought the gate of the monastery and, forsaking the things of this world, which I then regarded as vanities, I escaped from them, as a mariner from a shipwreck.” Hence we see that it is dangerous to possess material goods; for they occupy the mind to a perilous degree. It is better, therefore, to relinquish the possession of earthly things by actual poverty, that so, the mind may be freed from solicitude concerning them. -

St. Chrysostom asks in his book Quod neno laeditur nisi a se ipso, “What harm did material poverty do to the Apostles? Did they not live in hunger and thirst and nakedness? and were they not, on this account, more renowned and glorious? and did not their poverty increase their trust in God? “ Hence we see that actual poverty, which consists in privation of all things, forms part of Apostolical perfection. +

St. Gregory says (in the eighth homily of the second part on Ezech.), “When a man consecrates to God one thing, but not another, he offers a sacrifice. But, when he gives to God his whole life, with all that he has and all that he loves, he offers a holocaust, which is the most acceptable form of sacrifice.” Hence it is the most perfect work to abandon all that we have for the love of God. St. Gregory likewise says (prolog. Moral.), “While I was still constrained to serve the world in appearance, many temporal anxieties rose up around me and claimed all my attention. At length, escaping from them, I sought the gate of the monastery and, forsaking the things of this world, which I then regarded as vanities, I escaped from them, as a mariner from a shipwreck.” Hence we see that it is dangerous to possess material goods; for they occupy the mind to a perilous degree. It is better, therefore, to relinquish the possession of earthly things by actual poverty, that so, the mind may be freed from solicitude concerning them. +

St. Chrysostom asks in his book Quod neno laeditur nisi a se ipso, “What harm did material poverty do to the Apostles? Did they not live in hunger and thirst and nakedness? and were they not, on this account, more renowned and glorious? and did not their poverty increase their trust in God? “Hence we see that actual poverty, which consists in privation of all things, forms part of Apostolical perfection.

St, Bernard writes to the Archbishop of Sens: “Blessed is he who keeps for himself nothing of what he possesses. Blessed is he who has not a den like the wolves, nor a nest like the birds, nor a purse like Judas, nor a house, but who, like Mary, finds no room even in an inn, and thus imitates Him who had not whereon to lay His head.” Entire destitution of all earthly possessions, therefore, pertains to Christian perfection.

In I quaest. II. cap. Si quis, we read: “He who strips himself of everything, or who, possessing nothing, desires nothing, is more perfect than he who out of his abundance gives something to the Church.” These words are another proof that actual poverty is a point of Christian perfection. -

They who devote themselves to the contemplation of divine things ought to be more disengaged from temporal anxiety than they who apply themselves to the study of philosophy. But philosophers, in order to be able to give their whole attention to study, used to relinquish all their worldly possessions. St. Jerome says to the priest Paulinus (de instil. monach.), “Socrates, the Theban, a very wealthy man, when he went to study philosophy at Athens, cut away a large quantity of gold, judging that he could not, at the same time, possess both virtue and riches.” It is far more praiseworthy then to relinquish all worldly goods, for the sake of divine contemplation. The interlinear Gloss on the words, “ if you would be perfect,” etc. (Matt. xix) says: “Behold the life of contemplation taught by the Gospel.” +

They who devote themselves to the contemplation of divine things ought to be more disengaged from temporal anxiety than they who apply themselves to the study of philosophy. But philosophers, in order to be able to give their whole attention to study, used to relinquish all their worldly possessions. St. Jerome says to the priest Paulinus (de instil. monach.), “Socrates, the Theban, a very wealthy man, when he went to study philosophy at Athens, cut away a large quantity of gold, judging that he could not, at the same time, possess both virtue and riches.” It is far more praiseworthy then to relinquish all worldly goods, for the sake of divine contemplation. The interlinear Gloss on the words, “if you would be perfect,” etc. (Matt. xix) says: “Behold the life of contemplation taught by the Gospel.”

A great reward is only given for great merit. Now a great reward, i.e. judicial power, is due to actual poverty. This appears from the words of our Lord (Matt. xix.), “You who have left all things” etc. The Gloss commenting on this text says, “They who have left all things and have followed the Lord shall be judges; but they who have lawfully retained and used their goods, shall be judged.” Therefore, the higher merit is due to actual poverty.

St. Paul (1 Cor. vii.), in counselling virginity, gives as the reason of his counsel that they may be without solicitude. The renunciation of riches frees a man from solicitude. For riches engender many anxieties in their possessors. Hence our Lord (Luke x.) speaks of them as “thorns” which, by their care, choke the Word of God in the hearts of the hearers. Therefore, even as virginity, so poverty belongs to evangelical perfection.

2. We shall prove, in conclusion that the perfection which consists in the entire sacrifice of private property does not necessitate the possession of common property. @@ -425,17 +425,17 @@

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The intention of our Lord in giving the counsel of poverty, was, to enable men to disengage their minds from anxiety about temporal things. Now common property cannot be possessed without much solicitude concerning its preservation and improvement. Hence those who possess no common property, practise the counsel of poverty in the most perfect manner.

3. We shall finally show that actual poverty does not necessarily involve manual labour. St. Augustine says (in De opere monachorum): “They who in the world possessed the means of living without work and who, on their conversion to God, have parted with all that they had, should not be forced to labour with their hands. It is praiseworthy in them to embrace voluntary poverty for the love of Christ, even if they possess no common property.” In the primitive church of Jerusalem there were, as we know by the testimony of St. Augustine, many men of this description. Hence those who embrace voluntary poverty are not bound to manual labour, even though they possess no common property.

No one is bound by precept to work with his hands, unless he can by no other lawful means procure a livelihood. Manual labour is not, therefore, a duty for those who possess nothing, unless they be obliged thereto by vow. Hence it is not true that they are bound absolutely to manual labour. They are only obliged to perform it, when it is their only means of subsistence; and, in such a case, everyone would be obliged to work with his hands, even if no vow imposed such labour on him as a duty. -

The counsel of poverty was given by Oar Lord, in order to facilitate contemplation. This is pointed out by the Gloss on the words of Matt. xix., “If you would be perfect.” “Behold,” says the Gloss, “ the contemplative life ordained by the Gospel.” They, however, who are forced to gain their livelihood by the work of their hands, are greatly distracted from contemplation. If then those who, for the love of Christ, choose a life of poverty, be bound to manual labour, the very purpose for which the counsel of poverty was given will be frustrated. The counsel, therefore, will have been given to no purpose. This line of argument is, of course, absurd. +

The counsel of poverty was given by Oar Lord, in order to facilitate contemplation. This is pointed out by the Gloss on the words of Matt. xix., “If you would be perfect.” “Behold,” says the Gloss, “the contemplative life ordained by the Gospel.” They, however, who are forced to gain their livelihood by the work of their hands, are greatly distracted from contemplation. If then those who, for the love of Christ, choose a life of poverty, be bound to manual labour, the very purpose for which the counsel of poverty was given will be frustrated. The counsel, therefore, will have been given to no purpose. This line of argument is, of course, absurd.

If they who leave all things for the love of Christ, be bound to have the intention of working with their hands, they must form this intention for one of the three following reasons. They must intend to perform manual labour either for its own sake or to provide means of subsistence, or in order to procure money which can be given in alms. Now it is absurd to say that the spiritual perfection of poverty can consist in manual labour undertaken for its own sake. For, were such the case the work of the body, would be preferred before the perfection of the soul. Again, it is not reasonable to say that a man ought to leave all things with the intention of going to earn his own living. For, if he had stayed in the world he could have lived by the possessions, which he has forsaken; and further the manual labour of the poor of Christ who devote themselves to prayer and other spiritual exercises barely suffices to maintain them. They must therefore, as St. Augustine says in his book De opere monachorum, be assisted by the faithful. Thirdly, it cannot be maintained that manual labour ought to be undertaken in order to procure means for almsgiving. For they who enter religion could have given much more abundantly to the poor of the goods which they possessed in the world. Thus, they would act unreasonably in leaving all things, in order to do manual work for the sake of giving alms. They, therefore, who, having left all things enter a religious order which has no common property are not, as we have already shown, bound to have the intention of performing manual labour.

4. It only remains for us now to reply to the objections of our opponents.

(1.) With regard to the text from the Book of Proverbs concerning “beggary and riches,” we answer that as there is no evil in riches themselves, but in the abuse of them, so beggary or poverty is not, in itself an evil. The only evil of poverty is its abuse, when there is impatience or reluctance in bearing the suffering resulting from it, or when there arises a covetous desire of the goods of others. “Those who would become rich fall into temptation and into the snare of the devil” (1 Tim. vi. 9). St. Chrysostom likewise says on St. Matthew, “Listen, you who are poor, and still more carefully you who desire to be rich. It is not a bad thing to be poor; the real evil is to be unwilling to be poor.” It is therefore evident that poverty which is a necessity is accompanied by certain dangers, from which voluntary poverty is free. For they who become poor by their own act do not desire to be rich. Hence the prayer of Solomon concerning beggary and riches refers to involuntary poverty. This is clear from the context, “being compelled by poverty,” etc. The Gloss likewise says on this text of Proverbs, “The man who walks with God, prays that he may not, either through abundance or scarcity of material goods, fall into forgetfulness of such as are eternal.” Hence we see that Solomon teaches us that it is not poverty or riches themselves which are to be avoided, but the misuse of either of these conditions. -

(2.) The words of Solomon, “ wisdom with riches is more profitable,” etc., must be explained according to the rule laid down by Aristotle (I Ethic), viz. that “the greatest good, such as happiness, joined to a lesser good, is preferable to that lesser good.” Hence wisdom, which is amongst the greatest goods, is preferable to riches, which are an inferior good. But, according to this rule, the greatest good joined to another very great good is of more worth than if it be joined to a lesser good, or if it be considered by itself. Hence wisdom joined to evangelical perfection, which consists in poverty, and is one of the greatest goods, is worth more than wisdom considered by itself, or joined to riches. +

(2.) The words of Solomon, “wisdom with riches is more profitable,” etc., must be explained according to the rule laid down by Aristotle (I Ethic), viz. that “the greatest good, such as happiness, joined to a lesser good, is preferable to that lesser good.” Hence wisdom, which is amongst the greatest goods, is preferable to riches, which are an inferior good. But, according to this rule, the greatest good joined to another very great good is of more worth than if it be joined to a lesser good, or if it be considered by itself. Hence wisdom joined to evangelical perfection, which consists in poverty, and is one of the greatest goods, is worth more than wisdom considered by itself, or joined to riches.

(3.) The words, “through poverty many have sinned refers to compulsory poverty, which is necessarily accompanied by a desire for riches. We see this by the context, “He who seeks to be rich, turns away his eye.” As the Gloss explains, “He turns away the eye of his soul from the fear of the Lord.”

(4.) The passage of the Gloss, quoted as a fourth objection, is mutilated and misinterpreted. This becomes clear, if we subjoin its context, “He does not say that it is not better to give everything; but, out of consideration to those who are weak in virtue, he recommends them to give in such a manner that they shall not suffer want.”

(5.) The warning that “poverty diminishes friendship,” is to be understood of involuntary poverty, which causes covetousness. This is plain by the words that follow, “while he seeks to be filled.” Satiety implies that superabundance, which they desire who are not satisfied with a little, nor are of the number of those of whom St. Paul says (1 Tim. vi. 8), “having food and wherewithal to be covered, with these we are content.” He gives the following reason for this contentment with a little, “Those who will become rich, fall into temptation and the snare of the devil”; for the desire of great wealth often causes men to fall away from justice.

(6.) The words of the Gloss that “temporal possessions are not to be entirely rejected,” are to be interpreted to mean that we are to use our temporal means to procure food and clothing. This appears clearly from St. Paul’s words, “having food, and wherewith to be covered, with these we are content.” The Gloss does not mean that man can ignore all provision for temporal needs.

(7.) To the seventh objection, we reply that some temporal things, such as food and clothing, are absolutely necessary for the support of life. If I have more of such things than I need, I ought to assist the destitute, but I ought not to deprive myself of necessary food or raiment. It is of such things as are acquired for our present needs that the Gloss speaks in the passage quoted in the seventh objection. But there are temporal things, such as money and property which, though not needed at present, may in the future be necessary to our support. There is no reason why perfect men should not distribute these things to the poor; for, before they are needed, God may supply the lack of them in some other way; and we are commanded in the Scriptures to trust that He will do so. -

(8.) To the eighth objection, we reply that although it be not a matter of precept to reserve money for our necessities, it is nevertheless a matter of counsel. Our Lord carried a purse, not because He was unable otherwise to supply His needs, but for the sake of His weaker members, and in order that they might understand that it was lawful for them to do what they saw done by Christ. Hence the Gloss, on the words “ having the purse” (John xii), says: “He to whom the angels ministered, carried a purse out of condescension to our weakness and for the assistance of the poor.” Again, on the, verse in Psalm ciii., “bringing forth grass for cattle,” the Gloss says: “The Lord had a purse for the use of those who were with Him, and because in His own person He carried the infirmity of the weak, as when He said: ‘My soul is sorrowful’.” He was followed by pious women who ministered to Him of their substance. For He foresaw that in the future many of His followers would be weak and would seek material assistance. He did not fill his purse with His own property, but with alms given Him by devout and faithful men. +

(8.) To the eighth objection, we reply that although it be not a matter of precept to reserve money for our necessities, it is nevertheless a matter of counsel. Our Lord carried a purse, not because He was unable otherwise to supply His needs, but for the sake of His weaker members, and in order that they might understand that it was lawful for them to do what they saw done by Christ. Hence the Gloss, on the words “having the purse” (John xii), says: “He to whom the angels ministered, carried a purse out of condescension to our weakness and for the assistance of the poor.” Again, on the, verse in Psalm ciii., “bringing forth grass for cattle,” the Gloss says: “The Lord had a purse for the use of those who were with Him, and because in His own person He carried the infirmity of the weak, as when He said: ‘My soul is sorrowful’.” He was followed by pious women who ministered to Him of their substance. For He foresaw that in the future many of His followers would be weak and would seek material assistance. He did not fill his purse with His own property, but with alms given Him by devout and faithful men.

(9.) Our answer to the ninth objection, is the rule laid down in II Ethic, viz. that “the medium in virtue does not signify the distance from extremes, but the due proportion of circumstances, ordered by well balanced reason.” Hence the medium of virtue does not consist in preserving the right balance between superfluity and scarcity in any circumstance considered in itself, but in a circumstance considered in comparison with other circumstances. Thus, the medium of virtue may vary according to the variability of circumstances. In sobriety, for instance, the circumstance who is varied according to the variety of the circumstance what. An amount of food which would be a moderate quantity for one person, would be too much for another, and too little for a third. Thus, again, some virtue, such as magnanimity, existing in its highest degree, may be moderate in proportion to some other circumstance. “The magnanimous man,” says Aristotle (IV Ethic), “confers the greatest dignity on himself.” He who exceeds the virtue of magnanimity by superfluity, does not thereby acquire greater dignity, but oversteps the limits of virtue; and those things which were moderation in him as a magnanimous man, are now superfluous. Hence we see that the medium of virtue is not destroyed because one circumstance is in its highest degree, so long as that circumstance be proportioned to other circumstances. Thus, in a case of liberality, if we consider the quantity to be given, and if we attend only to the circumstance that in certain cases it is superfluous to give everything, we shall find the vice of prodigality. On the other hand, with a certain change of circumstances, this prodigality will become perfect liberality. For instance, if a man gives all that he possesses to save his country from danger, he will be an example of perfect liberality. In the same way, he who gives away all that he has in order to fulfil the counsel of our Lord, acts not with prodigality, but with perfect virtue. If, however, such a man were to spend his all upon some unfitting object, or with some unseemly circumstances, he would be prodigal. We may say the same of virginity and of all other virtues wherein there appears to be excess when the common mean of virtue is overstepped. Hence we see that to give everything for the love of Christ means not to give both what ought and ought not to be given, but to give only that which ought to be given. For, although all things are not in every case to be given, yet all things are to be given up for Christ.

(10.) Our reply to the tenth objection, is that grace is the perfection of nature. Therefore, it cannot be its destruction. There are certain things, such as food and sleep, which pertain immediately to the preservation of nature. In connection with these things, virtue does not exceed the limits of the preservation of nature. Hence if anyone deprive himself of that which nature demands for its support, it is a vicious and unreasonable act. It is such conduct that is rebuked, both by St, Paul, and by the Gloss. The Gloss says: “Let the service which you offer by the maceration of the flesh, be reasonable, i.e. tempered by discretion, and not excessive. Chastise your body with moderation, so that it be not destroyed.” But nature can be preserved without luxury. Hence if a man abstain from sensual pleasure, he is not performing a superfluous act, unless, by such abstention, he should fall into sin. For this reason, virginity is praiseworthy. Again, life can be preserved without material possessions, if we trust that Divine Providence will assist us in many ways. Hence a man does nothing superfluous, in giving up for Christ, all that he possesses, consequently, voluntary poverty, practised for the love of Christ, is no departure from the medium which ought to be observed in virtue.

(11.) To the next objection, we reply that although he who leaves all things for the love of Christ, does, to a certain extent, deprive himself of the means of existence; yet, he can always count on the assistance of Divine Providence, which will never fail him; he can also reckon on the charity of the faithful. St. Augustine, in his book, On Almsdeeds, thus expresses himself on this subject: “Do you think that anything wil be lacking to a Christian, to a servant of God, to one devoted to good works, and to one precious in the sight of his Master? Shall he who feeds Christ not likewise be fed by Him? Shall earthly things be wanting to him, on whom divine and heavenly gifts are bestowed? Where do such unbelief and such impious and sacrilegious ideas spring from? How then can any be found in the house of God with so little confidence in Him? Does he who does not trust Christ absolutely deserve to be called a Christian? No, rather such a one should be named a Pharisee. For, as we read in the Gospel, the Pharisees, hearing our Lord teach the duty of giving alms and of making to ourselves friends of earthly goods, derided Him in their avarice. And even now we behold in the Church men who resemble the Pharisees, whose ears are closed and whose eyes are blinded, so that they can perceive no ray of the light of spiritual and salutary teaching. We have no reason then to wonder that such men hold the servants of God in contempt, when we know that the Lord Himself was despised.” These words point out, clearly that it is sacrilegious to say that they who abandon all things for the love of Christ, expose themselves to the risk of suicide. @@ -443,23 +443,23 @@

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(13) To the thirteenth objection, we reply that a man is a master of his own, not of his neighbour’s property. He, therefore, injures another if he deprives him of what belong to him; but he does no injury to himself by sacrificing his own possessions. Hence Aristotle says (V Ethic) that “a man cannot, strictly speaking, commit an injustice against himself.” Furthermore, he who deprives his neighbour of what belongs to him, reduces him to involuntary poverty, which is dangerous. He who abandons his own possessions, accepts voluntary poverty which, if it is embraced for the love of God, is meritorious.

(14.) Our answer to the next objection is that our Lord reserved a certain sum of money for necessary uses out of condescension to the weak; just as, out of condesconsion to human infirmity, he willed to eat and to drink wine with the Pharisees. It must not then be reputed as superstition in the holy fathers in the desert, if they refused to keep money for their own use, or if they chose to abstain from wine or from delicate fare. The money which our Lord reserved was not his own private property; it had been given to Him as alms. For, we are told (Luke viii) that “certain women... ministered to Him out of their resources.

(15.) To the fifteenth objection, we likewise reply that, although the Apostles reserved certain sums for themselves and to distribute among those holy men who had made themselves poor for Christ, that money was not their own, but was given them by the faithful in charity. When we are told that there was none needy among them, we are not to conclude that the Apostles and Christians of the early Church did not endure much poverty for the love of Christ. For, St. Paul says, (1 Cor. iv. 11), “Even to this hour we both hunger and thirst.” And again (2 Cor. vi. 4) “in much patience, in tribulations, in necessities” or, as the Gloss says, “want of food and clothing.” We must understand by these texts that the Apostles, in so far as they were able, supplied the poorer members of the community with such things as were needful to them. -

(16.) To the sixteenth objection we reply that the prohibition given by our Lord to His disciples, “not to go into the way of the Gentiles,” was absolutely rescinded by Him after the resurrection; because it then became necessary for the Jews to preach the word of God to the Gentiles (Acts xiii.). But Christ did not, at the last supper, absolutely revoke His precept to the disciples to take nothing with them on the way. He only gave them a different order, which was to be obeyed during the time of persecution, when they would not have been able to procure the necessities of life. Hence the Gloss says on the text of St. Luke, xxii. 35), “When I sent you,” etc.: “The Apostles are not told to observe the same rule in time of persecution as in time of peace. For, when they were sent to preach, our Lord told them take nothing with them, for it was His will that those who preach the Gospel should live by the Gospel. But, when His death was imminent, and the hour drew near when both the pastors and the flock should be exposed to persecution, He instituted a rule befitting the circumstances; and so He permitted His disciples to carry with them the means of sustenance till such time as the fury of their persecutors should have abated, and a fitting season for preaching the Gospel should have arrived.” “Thus,” the Gloss continues, “does Christ teach us that under certain circumstances, we are justified in relaxing the rigour of our rule.” We may, for example, when preaching in a hostile country, carry with us larger supplies than we should have at home. But the heretics who make the objection which it is our duty to combat, do not accept the Gloss. We shall, therefore, show by the text of the Scriptures that when the faithful increased in number, the disciples of Christ did not carry with them the means of support We read (3 John i. 5), “Dearly beloved, it is a loyal thing you do when you render any service to the brethren, especially to strangers.” Again, “ Because, for His name, they went out, taking nothing of the Gentiles, we therefore ought to receive such.” Now if the Apostles had carried supplies with them, it would not have been necessary for them to have been assisted by the faithful, even though the Gentiles had refused them any help. This is made still more clear by the words of the Gloss, “because for His name they went forth, forsaking their own possessions.” +

(16.) To the sixteenth objection we reply that the prohibition given by our Lord to His disciples, “not to go into the way of the Gentiles,” was absolutely rescinded by Him after the resurrection; because it then became necessary for the Jews to preach the word of God to the Gentiles (Acts xiii.). But Christ did not, at the last supper, absolutely revoke His precept to the disciples to take nothing with them on the way. He only gave them a different order, which was to be obeyed during the time of persecution, when they would not have been able to procure the necessities of life. Hence the Gloss says on the text of St. Luke, xxii. 35), “When I sent you,” etc.: “The Apostles are not told to observe the same rule in time of persecution as in time of peace. For, when they were sent to preach, our Lord told them take nothing with them, for it was His will that those who preach the Gospel should live by the Gospel. But, when His death was imminent, and the hour drew near when both the pastors and the flock should be exposed to persecution, He instituted a rule befitting the circumstances; and so He permitted His disciples to carry with them the means of sustenance till such time as the fury of their persecutors should have abated, and a fitting season for preaching the Gospel should have arrived.” “Thus,” the Gloss continues, “does Christ teach us that under certain circumstances, we are justified in relaxing the rigour of our rule.” We may, for example, when preaching in a hostile country, carry with us larger supplies than we should have at home. But the heretics who make the objection which it is our duty to combat, do not accept the Gloss. We shall, therefore, show by the text of the Scriptures that when the faithful increased in number, the disciples of Christ did not carry with them the means of support We read (3 John i. 5), “Dearly beloved, it is a loyal thing you do when you render any service to the brethren, especially to strangers.” Again, “Because, for His name, they went out, taking nothing of the Gentiles, we therefore ought to receive such.” Now if the Apostles had carried supplies with them, it would not have been necessary for them to have been assisted by the faithful, even though the Gentiles had refused them any help. This is made still more clear by the words of the Gloss, “because for His name they went forth, forsaking their own possessions.”

(17.) The seventeenth objection is answered by the fact that the Church supports many that are sick; and that she could not do so without the possession of some material wealth. Hence it is right for a man to give up his own property and to hold that of the Church; and he should act this way, on account of the poor. But, it does not follow that it is not expedient for perfect men, who have sacrificed all that belongs to them, to lead a religious life in an order which possesses no common property. Apostolic perfection is not wanting to those who have possessions in common; but it appears more manifestly in those who relinquish their private property and have no property in common.

(18.) We reply to the eighteenth objection that the decree quoted by it does not forbid the choice of a life of poverty for the love of Christ. It is simply a precept commanding bishops and all in possession of ecclesiastical property, which belongs to the poor, to provide for the poor, as far as they can, and to assist them in their needs. This will be easily perceived by anyone who studies the context of the chapter.

(19.) Our answer to the nineteenth objection is that they who have relinquished all things for Christ, in the trust that He will provide for them, neither sin by presumption, nor do they tempt God. For, to have due confidence in God is not presumptuous nor is it tempting Him. Now the poor of Christ, especially the preachers of the truth, are bound to cherish this confidence in God. The Gloss says on the words in St. Luke (chap. x.), “Carry neither purse,” etc., “A preacher ought to have such trust in God that, even though he is not supplied with means to support him in this present life, he ought to be quite certain that necessary things will not be wanting to him, lest in his anxiety about temporal things, he fail to preach eternal truths.” Yes, unless he has this confidence in Providence, he is tempting God. On the words of 1 Cor. x, “neither let us tempt Him,” the Gloss says, “Let us not ask: ‘can God prepare a table in the desert?’” But we must distinguish between the cases in which this implicit confidence does or does not tempt God. There are certain dangers from which a man cannot be rescued save by miracle; and if he exposes himself to such perils he is tempting God. A person would tempt God if, in hopes of Divine protection, he should fling himself from a wall, unless, indeed, he had been miraculously forewarned that it was the will of God to save him from death. Such foreknowledge was givem to St, Peter when, at the command of Jesus, he walked upon the sea; to Blessed Martin, when he said, “Under your protection, not of helmet nor of shield, but of the sign of the Cross, I shall safely make my way through the ranks of the enemy”; to St. John the Evangelist when he courageously swallowed the poisoned draught; to St. Agatha, who said, “Carnal medicine for the body I have never taken; but I possess the Lord Jesus Christ who, by His word alone, restores all things.” There are other cases wherein a remedy is attainable by inferior means; and a man does not tempt God if, under such circumstances, he trusts Him entirely. Thus a soldier does not tempt God by going to battle, although he is uncertain as to the issue of the fight. Neither does someone tempt God who renounces for His sake all that he possesses, trusting both in Divine Providence and in the charity of the faithful for the supply of his necessities. Rather, he resembles a man who, seeing a bear approach, resigns, for some reasonable motive, his weapon of self-defence to armed, men whose duty and desire it is to defend him.

(20.) The answer to the twentieth objection, is that we are instructed to beg of God, to supply our temporal necessities, and that we ought not reject temporal assistance until we are provided with the food and clothing that we need.

(21.) The statute, quoted in the twenty-first objection, was drawn up in favour of the ministers of the Church. But, if any choose, as a work of supererogation, to serve the Church without stipend, they are so much the more praiseworthy in that they resemble St. Paul, who preached the Gospel without reward; he was a preacher ordained by God (1 Cor. ix.).

(22.) We reply to the twenty-second objection that although the holy Fathers have commended one course, they have not blamed the other. Therefore, it is not presumptuous, to follow this other course; else, it would not be lawful to introduce into the Church any new ordinance. Nevertheless, the mode of life of which we speak cannot be called new, as it was approved by many Saints, even in the primitive Church. -

Our answer to the twenty-third objection, is that it is a duty for rich men to assist the needy. For, as St, John says, (1 Jn. iii.), “He who has the substance of this world, and sees his brother in need, and shuts up his bowels from him: how does the charity of God abide in him?” But it is even more praiseworthy if a man, besides sacrificing all his possessions, consecrates himself to God. This is truly Apostolic perfection. For, as St., Jerome says; “To offer oneself to God is a truly Christian act and worthy of the Apostles, who, having renounced all they had, offered themselves to the Lord “ (ad Lucinum Beticum). +

Our answer to the twenty-third objection, is that it is a duty for rich men to assist the needy. For, as St, John says, (1 Jn. iii.), “He who has the substance of this world, and sees his brother in need, and shuts up his bowels from him: how does the charity of God abide in him?” But it is even more praiseworthy if a man, besides sacrificing all his possessions, consecrates himself to God. This is truly Apostolic perfection. For, as St., Jerome says; “To offer oneself to God is a truly Christian act and worthy of the Apostles, who, having renounced all they had, offered themselves to the Lord “(ad Lucinum Beticum).

CHAPTER 6

Is it Lawful for Religious to Live on Alms?

THE adversaries of Christian poverty strive to prevent its practice not only by raising objections against it, but by trying, indirectly, to abolish it entirely. They endeavour to deprive the poor of Christ of the means of subsistence, by teaching that it is not lawful for them to live on alms. They thus come under the category of those of whom the Preacher speaks, (Sirach xxxiv. 21), “The bread of the needy is the life of the poor; he who defrauds them of it is a man of blood.” They try to uphold their opinion by various arguments.

1. They quote the words of Deuteronomy (xvi. 19): “Do not show partiality or accept gifts [bribes]; for a gift blinds the eyes of the wise, and changes the words of the just.” Now alms are a species of gift; and as religious, above all other men, ought to have the eyes of the soul enlightened, they are not justified in living on alms. -

2. “The borrower is servant to the one who lends” (Prov. xxii. 7). Much more then is he who accepts a gift the servant of him who gives it. Now it religious should be free from the bondage of the world, for they are called unto liberty of spirit. The Gloss, on the words (2 Thes. iii.), “That we might give ourselves a pattern for you,” observes: “Our religion calls men to freedom.” Therefore, religious ought not to live on alms. +

2. “The borrower is servant to the one who lends” (Prov. xxii. 7). Much more then is he who accepts a gift the servant of him who gives it. Now the religious should be free from the bondage of the world, for they are called unto liberty of spirit. The Gloss, on the words (2 Thes. iii.), “That we might give ourselves a pattern for you,” observes: “Our religion calls men to freedom.” Therefore, religious ought not to live on alms.

3. Religious make profession of a state of perfection. Now it is a more perfect thing to give than to receive alms. Hence in the Acts of the Apostles (xx. 35) it is said: “It is a more blessed thing to give than to receive.” Therefore, religious ought, rather, to work with their hands, so that they may be able to give to the needy, instead of receiving from others alms, upon which they are to live.

4. St. Paul, writing to Timothy (1 Tim. v.), ordains that widows who have other means of subsistence, are not to live on the charity of the Church, lest they become a burden to her, and so make it difficult for her to support such as are widows indeed. Therefore, strong, able-bodied men ought to work for their living, and not to deprive the poor of the alms on which they depend for support. St. Jerome says (I, q. II cap. Clericos), “They who are able to live either on their patrimony or by means of their work, and yet accept alms, commit a sacrilege; and by their abuse of charity they eat and drink judgment to themselves.” Hence anyone who has other means of subsistence, and chooses to live on alms, must be reputed as guilty of sacrilege. -

5. The Gloss commenting on the text of 2 Thes., “that we might give ourselves a pattern” etc., says: “ He who, in his indolence, constantly eats at the table of another must necessarily flatter his host.” Now they who live on charity often eat at the expense of their neighbour; they are, therefore, sure to become flatterers. It is sinful in them, therefore, to reduce themselves to a condition which obliges them to live on alms. +

5. The Gloss commenting on the text of 2 Thes., “that we might give ourselves a pattern” etc., says: “He who, in his indolence, constantly eats at the table of another must necessarily flatter his host.” Now they who live on charity often eat at the expense of their neighbour; they are, therefore, sure to become flatterers. It is sinful in them, therefore, to reduce themselves to a condition which obliges them to live on alms.

6. The acceptance of gifts cannot be an act of any virtue save of liberality, which is the mean between giving and receiving. But a liberal man only accepts in order to give, as Aristotle says (V. Ethic). Hence they who spend their lives in accepting live in a reprehensible manner. St. Augustine in his book De opere monachorum thus rebukes certain monks who wished to live on alms, instead of by work: “These brethren, rashly, in my opinion, assume that they have the right to live by the Gospel, instead of by the labour of their hands.” Yet, those whom he thus reproaches, as we know by St. Augustine’s own testimony, had renounced all things for the love of Christ, and devoted themselves to spiritual exercises, such as prayer, psalmody, reading and the Word of God. Hence they who leave all things for Christ, even if they be entirely occupied in spiritual concerns, ought not to live on alms.

7. We are told in St. Mark’s Gospel that “He commanded them that they should take nothing for the way but a staff only” (vi. 8). The Gloss remarks, “by a staff is signified the power of accepting necessary things from inferiors. But none but prelates have inferiors.” Hence those religious who are not prelates have no right to accept alms from the faithful.

8. Only those who labour have a right to the privileges of labour. Now the privilege granted by our Lord to those that preach the Gospel is that they shall live by the Gospel. This is confirmed by St. Paul (1 Cor. ix. and 2 Tim. ii.), “The farmer who labours ought first to partake of the fruits.” Therefore, those that do not preach the Gospel ought not to live on the charity of the faithful. @@ -470,32 +470,32 @@

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1. We read in Deut. xv. 4, “There shall be no poor nor beggar among you.” Hence it is forbidden for anyone to beg, who can get his living by other means.

2. In Psalm xxxvi. 25, it is written: “I have not seen the just forsaken, nor his seed seeking bread.” Therefore, beggars are not the seed of the just man, i.e., of Christ.

3. A curse is not uttered in Holy Scripture against the just. But in Psalm cviii. 10 mendicity is accounted a curse: “Let his children be carried about vagabonds and beg.” Hence mendicity is not a state befitting perfect men. -

4. St. Paul exhorts the Thessalonians (1 Thes. iv. 11), in the following terms: “Work with your own hands, at we commanded you:...walk honestly towards those who are without;...be dependent on nobody.” The Gloss adds: “Therefore should you work, and not live in idleness. This is honourable, and is as a light to unbelievers. You should not desire another man’s goods, you should neither ask for them, nor take them.” Hence it is plain that manual labour is preferable to begging. +

4. St. Paul exhorts the Thessalonians (1 Thes. iv. 11), in the following terms: “Work with your own hands, as we commanded you:...walk honestly towards those who are without;...be dependent on nobody.” The Gloss adds: “Therefore should you work, and not live in idleness. This is honourable, and is as a light to unbelievers. You should not desire another man’s goods, you should neither ask for them, nor take them.” Hence it is plain that manual labour is preferable to begging.

5. St. Augustine thus comments on the words: “if amy man will not work,” etc.: “The servants of God ought to do some work, whereby they may earn a livelihood; so that they may not be compelled by necessity to beg.” Thus, we see that they are bound to manual labour rather than to mendicancy.

6. St. Jerome writes to Nepotian: “Let us never ask, and but rarely accept when we are pressed to do so. For it is more blessed to give than to receive.” The servants of God ought then neither to beg for, nor to accept the necessities of life.

7. The more severe the penalty inflicted, the more heinous, evidently, is the offence committed. This is laid down XXIV. q, I, “Let us not use unequal scales.” According to civil law, a sturdy beggar, if discovered, is sorely punished. For if he is of a servile condition, he is given over to be the slave of his accuser; if he is a freeman, he is condemned to be his perpetual servant (De mendicant. valid., lib. unica). Religious in robust health, therefore, sin by begging.

8. St. Augustine, in De opere monachorum, speaks thus of mendicant religious: “Our crafty enemy sends out hypocrites who, in the monastic habit, roam from province to province. They bear no commission. They settle nowhere, and are never at rest. They beg for everything. They exact all things, either as the requirements of their lucrative poverty, or as the reward of their pretended sanctity.” -

9. That which naturally causes shame in man, is intrinsically disgraceful. For, as St. John Damascene says, we only blush for what is shameful. Now men are instinctively ashamed of begging; and the nobler a mans’s nature, the more acutely he feels the disgrace of mendicancy. Thus St. Ambrose says (lib. de offic.) that shame at begging proves the nobility of a man. And Aristotle (V Ethics) says that a freeman is “not prone to beg.” Mendicity then is in itself disgraceful; and no one ought to resort to it who can live by any other means. +

9. That which naturally causes shame in man is intrinsically disgraceful. For, as St. John Damascene says, we only blush for what is shameful. Now men are instinctively ashamed of begging; and the nobler a man’s nature, the more acutely he feels the disgrace of mendicancy. Thus St. Ambrose says (lib. de offic.) that shame at begging proves the nobility of a man. And Aristotle (V Ethics) says that a freeman is “not prone to beg.” Mendicity then is in itself disgraceful; and no one ought to resort to it who can live by any other means.

10. The Gloss, on the words: “God loves a cheerful giver” (2 Cor. ix.), runs as follows: “He who gives in order to rid himself of the importunity of a beggar rather than to relieve the need of a poor man loses the merit of his alms. But charity is often thus bestowed on beggars; for they weary men by their persistence.”

Our opponents likewise try to prove that even religious who preach ought not to beg nor to live on alms.

1. St. Paul says (1 Thess. ii.), “Neither have we used at any time the speech of flattery, as you know.” Now preachers who beg and live on alms are obliged to flatter those whose charity they receive. The Gloss on the words, “and leaving them, he went out” (Matt. xxi) says: “For as He was poor and flattered none, He received hospitality from no one in the city, save from Lazarus.” And yet, for this very cause, the preaching of our Lord was all the more powerful. For, as Luke tells us (xxi. 38), “the people came early in the morning to him in the temple, to hear him.” -

2. Again, St. Paul says (1 Cor. iv. 11), “Even to this hour we both hunger and thirst and are naked.” On these words the Gloss makes the following comment: “Those who preach, the truth with sincerity and without flattery, and who reprove the vices of mankind are not favourably heard.” Therefore, preachers ought not to ask for alms. +

2. Again, St. Paul says (1 Cor. iv. 11), “Even to this hour we both hunger and thirst and are naked.” On these words the Gloss makes the following comment: “Those who preach the truth with sincerity and without flattery and who reprove the vices of mankind are not favourably heard.” Therefore, preachers ought not to ask for alms.

3. St, Paul says: (1 Thess. ii. 5), “Neither have we taken an occasion of covetousness. God knows.” Gloss observes hereon, “The Apostle does not say: ‘I have not been covetous,’ but ‘I have neither said nor done anything that can be an occasion of covetousness.’” Preachers ought to be able to speak in like manner. Those, however, who beg become, on the contrary, an occasion of covetousness to others. -

4. Again, (2 Cor. xii. 14), St. Paul says, “ I will not be burdensome unto you. I do not seek the things that are yours, but you.” Likewise (Philip. iv. 17) he writes: “Not that I seek the gift, but I seek the fruit.” The Gloss says: “By the gift is meant the things given, such as money, food and the like; the fruit signifies the good works, and the upright intention of the giver.” True preachers then ought not to seek temporal gifts from their hearers. For this reason, the ought not to live by begging. +

4. Again, (2 Cor. xii. 14), St. Paul says, “I will not be burdensome unto you. I do not seek the things that are yours, but you.” Likewise (Philip. iv. 17) he writes: “Not that I seek the gift, but I seek the fruit.” The Gloss says: “By the gift is meant the things given, such as money, food and the like; the fruit signifies the good works, and the upright intention of the giver.” True preachers then ought not to seek temporal gifts from their hearers. For this reason, they ought not to live by begging.

On the words: “the farmer who labours” etc. (2 Tim. ii.), the Gloss says: “The Apostle desires the evangelist to understand that he may accept that which is needful from them for whom he labours in God, whom he cultivates as a vinedresser tends his vine, and whom he feeds as a shepherd feeds his flock For to act thus is a right; it is not beggary.” Hence we see that those who preach the Gospel have a claim to live by it; and that they are not mendicants when they do so. But this right belongs only to prelates, and, therefore, other preachers ought not to live by the Gospel.

6. St. Paul (1 Cor. ix.), wishing to show that it was lawful for him to accept alms from the faithful, first proves that he is an Apostle. Those who are not Apostles, have no right to live by the charity of the faithful. Preaching religious, not being prelates, are not Apostles; therefore they do not have this right. -

7. The Gloss, commenting on the words of 1 These. ii, “whereas we might have been burthensome to you as the Apostles of Christ,” says: “St. Paul points out the hypocrisy of the false prophets, by refusing to ask for the support which he might justly have claimed, in order to rebuke those who, although they had no right to ask for assistance, blushed not to do so. He speaks of this Apostolic claim to the alms of the faithful as “a burden,” in allusion to the false prophets who unlawfully usurped the right of asking for charity, and importunately urged their pretended claims.” It thus becomes plain that they who require the faithful to support them must, as they are not Apostles, be accounted to be false prophets. Therefore, preachers who are not prelates, ought not to beg. +

7. The Gloss, commenting on the words of 1 Thes. ii, “whereas we might have been burthensome to you as the Apostles of Christ,” says: “St. Paul points out the hypocrisy of the false prophets, by refusing to ask for the support which he might justly have claimed, in order to rebuke those who, although they had no right to ask for assistance, blushed not to do so. He speaks of this Apostolic claim to the alms of the faithful as “a burden,” in allusion to the false prophets who unlawfully usurped the right of asking for charity, and importunately urged their pretended claims.” It thus becomes plain that they who require the faithful to support them must, as they are not Apostles, be accounted to be false prophets. Therefore, preachers who are not prelates ought not to beg.

8. Preachers who are not prelates either have, or have not, a right to be maintained by those to whom they preach. If they possess this right, they can enforce it by coercion. This idea is, of course, absurd. If they have no right to such support, they are begging unlawfully and unjustly; and they ought, as we have just shown from the Gloss, to be counted as false prophets.

9. Prelates who receive from the laity tithes and offerings are bound to provide for their spiritual needs. Hence if others be commissioned by bishops to minister to the faithful and to receive alms from them, it is unfair to the people. For it is the bishops, and not the people, who ought to provide for the wants of those whom they send.

10. Prelates who commission others to preach are bound to supply their necessities (Extra de offic., ord. Inter caetera). If then the preachers demand offerings from their bearers, they are doing them an injustice; for they ought not to accept remuneration from them.

11. Our Lord says to the Pharisees (Matt. xxiii 14), “Woe to you scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites, who devour the houses of widows, praying loug prayers.” Those are equally reprehensible who beg for alms, under the pretext of praying, or preaching, or of any other act of the like nature. -

12. Christ, when He sent forth His disciples to preach, said to them: “Into whatever city or town you shall enter, enquire who in it is worthy “ (Matt. x. 11). The Gloss says on this verse, “We must choose our host by the testimony of his neighbours, lest his bad life should cause our preaching to be neglected.” Again, “He is worthy to entertain us, who understands that thereby he receives, rather than confers, a favour.” Hence it is highly reprehensible for preachers to condescend to wealthy sinners, and to those who do not esteem their abode with them to be a favour. +

12. Christ, when He sent forth His disciples to preach, said to them: “Into whatever city or town you shall enter, enquire who in it is worthy” (Matt. x. 11). The Gloss says on this verse, “We must choose our host by the testimony of his neighbours, lest his bad life should cause our preaching to be neglected.” Again, “He is worthy to entertain us, who understands that thereby he receives, rather than confers, a favour.” Hence it is highly reprehensible for preachers to condescend to wealthy sinners, and to those who do not esteem their abode with them to be a favour.

13. He who barters a spiritual for a temporal good commits the sin of simony, whether, like Giezi, he asks for a gift, or whether a gift be offered to him, like that which Elisha refused to accept from Naaman (4 Kings v.). The sin is equal, whether it be before or after the work that the gift is accepted (I, q. I. cap. Eos). Now he who preaches to the people exercises a spiritual ministry towards them. Hence a preacher should not accept their temporal gifts, whether he asks for them, or whether they offer them without being asked. -

14. St. Paul says: “From all appearance of evil refrain yourselves” (1 Thes. v. 22). The Gloss adds: “If something appears to be wrong, although it be not actually wrong, do not do it impulsively.” Now it has a bad appearance for a preacher to seek material assistance from those to whom he preaches. Hence St. Paul said: “I seek not those things which are yours, but you” (2 Cor. xii). For, as the Gloss observes, “ the Apostle, lest he might seem to sell the Gospel, desired not gifts, but fruit.” In like manner, preachers ought not to beg for a livelihood from those to whom they preach. +

14. St. Paul says: “From all appearance of evil refrain yourselves” (1 Thes. v. 22). The Gloss adds: “If something appears to be wrong, although it be not actually wrong, do not do it impulsively.” Now it has a bad appearance for a preacher to seek material assistance from those to whom he preaches. Hence St. Paul said: “I seek not those things which are yours, but you” (2 Cor. xii). For, as the Gloss observes, “the Apostle, lest he might seem to sell the Gospel, desired not gifts, but fruit.” In like manner, preachers ought not to beg for a livelihood from those to whom they preach.

Our opponents, also, attempt to prove that alms ought not to be given to religious.

1. They, quote the words from Luke (xiv. 13), “When you make a feast, call the poor, the maimed, the lame and the blind.” “From whom,” as the Gloss says, “there is nothing to be expected.” But you might gain something from strong and healthy beggars, who are often the parasites of rich men. Therefore, we ought not to give to the latter class of mendicant.

2. St. Augustine writes to Vincent the Donatist that “it is better to deprive a hungry man of food, than to give bread to one who, being sure of a livelihood, will forsake justice. For by succouring such a one, we connive at his evildoing.” Now he who will not work for his living when he is able, or he who can get food in a lawful manner without begging and yet prefers to beg, acts unjustly. Hence alms should not be bestowed upon him. -

3. The Gloss on the words, “ Give to every one who asks of you,” (Luke vi.) says, “Give him what he wants or a reproof.” Again, on the words, “Give to him who asks you” (Matt. v.), the Gloss says: “Give in such a way as to injure neither yourself nor another. For justice should be balanced. Thus, you should give to every one who asks you, if not what he asks for, then some better thing, namely, a rebuke for asking wrongfully.” Now as we have shown, he who prefers begging to manual labour begs unjustly; and he deserves reproof rather than alms. +

3. The Gloss on the words, “Give to every one who asks of you,” (Luke vi.) says, “Give him what he wants or a reproof.” Again, on the words, “Give to him who asks you” (Matt. v.), the Gloss says: “Give in such a way as to injure neither yourself nor another. For justice should be balanced. Thus, you should give to every one who asks you, if not what he asks for, then some better thing, namely, a rebuke for asking wrongfully.” Now as we have shown, he who prefers begging to manual labour begs unjustly; and he deserves reproof rather than alms.

4. St. Augustine, in his letter to the Donatist Vincent, says, “The evil have often persecuted the good, and the good have persecuted the evil. The evil persecuted the good by injustice; and the good persecute the bad by correction.” Hence for the sake of correction, the good may persecute the bad; and to deprive them of food is a species of correction. Now sturdy beggars sin, even though they preach; and therefore, they ought to be deprived of food.

6. St. Ambrose (I De offic.) says: “In giving charity, we must take into consideration the age of the one who asks of us, his health and the boldness with which he begs. For shame in asking for alms often betrays the nobility of him who asks. We must give more abundantly to the aged, who cannot gain a living by the labour of their hands. The sick, likewise should be promptly relieved; and those who have fallen form wealth into poverty, not by their own fault, but through robbery or proscription or calumny.” Now robust beggars are neither infirm in health nor shamefaced; neither have they lost their property through robbery or proscription. Therefore they should not be helped by charity.

6. Alms should be given for the purpose of relieving indigence; and the greater the distress, the greater should be our liberality. But those who cannot work for their living and cannot get support by any other means are in much greater straits than are they who are able to obtain a livelihood. As long, therefore, as we find indigent persons belonging to hte first category, we should not give to those belonging to the second. @@ -511,7 +511,7 @@

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5. We shall confute the arguments brought in support of the contrary propositions.

1. The fact that those who are poor because they have renounced all things for Christ have a right to live on alms is proved by the example of St. Benedict. He, as St. Gregory tells us (2 Diolog.), lived for three years in a cave after he left his parents’ house, dependent on the ministry of the monk Romanus. He was in sound health, but we do not read that he worked for his living.

2. In I. q. II. Cap. Sacerdos, it is laid down that “he who has either renounced all his property in favour of his kinsfolk, or has distributed it to the poor, or given it to the Church, and has thus, for love of poverty, made himself poor, is not only free from the guilt of covetousness if he accept assistance from the faithful; but that he may laudably do so, in order thereby to assist the poor, while he himself lives in voluntary poverty.” It is thus evident that a man who has renounced all things for Christ, may live on the charity of the faithful. -

3. A man is bound rather to sacrifice some good, which he may relinquish without sin, than to commit sim If then they who are in robust health sin by taking alms, they ought to relinquish every other occupation, however good, rather than accept charity. This proposition is false, as we see by the words of St. Augustine in De opere monachorum. The Saint says that “those servants of God who work with their hands ought to have some time set apart in which to rest from labour, and to commit to memory what they ought to know. They ought, he says, to be assisted by the good offices of the faithful, in order that at the times devoted to learning, they may dot be depressed by want.” St. Augustine thus shows that, in his opinion, monks ought not to be entirely dependent on labour for their daily bread; otherwise no opportunity would be afforded them for spiritual exercises. +

3. A man is bound rather to sacrifice some good, which he may relinquish without sin, than to commit sim If then they who are in robust health sin by taking alms, they ought to relinquish every other occupation, however good, rather than accept charity. This proposition is false, as we see by the words of St. Augustine in De opere monachorum. The Saint says that “those servants of God who work with their hands ought to have some time set apart in which to rest from labour, and to commit to memory what they ought to know. They ought, he says, to be assisted by the good offices of the faithful, in order that at the times devoted to learning, they may not be depressed by want.” St. Augustine thus shows that, in his opinion, monks ought not to be entirely dependent on labour for their daily bread; otherwise no opportunity would be afforded them for spiritual exercises.

4. In the same work, St. Augustine, referring to a certain rich man who had given all his wealth to a monastery, says that “he performed a good work by labouring with his hands, in order to give an example; although, by the benefit which he had conferred on the community, he had a right to be supported by it. For, had he been unwilling to work, who would have dared to urge him to do so?” Hence we see that he who bestows his substance on a monastery, has a right to live in that monastery without manual labour. But the Saint further remarks that as all Christians form one republic, it is of no consequence to which section of the commonwealth each one gives his money, nor from whom he derives support. Hence they who have left all things for Christ may accept the necessities of life from anyone.

6. The intention of refraining from a deed, bad in itself, does not diminish the intrinsic evil of the deed, though it may lessen the sin committed. If, therefore, it is in itself sinful for a man who is able to work to live on alms, those who, although in good health, intend to live for a time on charity, intending at other times to live by other means, cannot be excused from sin. Pilgrims, therefore, who beg on their pilgrimages, commit sin. Sin is likewise committed by those who enjoin pilgrimages. This supposition is of course absurd.

6. It is more meritorious in a man to devote himself to divine contemplation than to the study of philosophy. Some men, however, do, without sin, live for a time on charity in order to pursue such study. Therefore, it is permissible for others to live for a time on alms, in order to devote themselves to divine contemplation. But, it is more praiseworthy in a man to consecrate himself perpetually to contemplation than temporarily to study. Consequently it is lawful for men to set aside manual labour and to live, absorbed in contemplation, on the alms of the faithful. @@ -520,14 +520,14 @@

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9. The poor who are unable to work are more grossly defrauded, if what is their due is given to others, than if those others receive what they have a claim to. Now the income of ecclesiastical property is intended be given to the poor (XII, quaest. I, cap. Videntes). Hence it is laid down (I, quaest. II, cap. Clericus & cap. Si quis) that “clerics who can live on their own patrimony cannot, without sin, live on the goods of the Church, which are destined for the support of the poor.” Hence a greater injustice is committed against the poor, if those who, although in good health, do no manual labour, and yet live on ecclesiastical property, than if the poor of Christ live by the private offerings of the faithful, which are not the right of the poor. If those in the first category do not defraud the poor, those who are in the second most certainly do not do so. In our treatise on manual labour will be found many other arguments in proof of the same point.

Our next task will be to show that preachers, although, they be not prelates, may accept for their maintenance alms from those to whom they preach.

1. St. Paul writes to the Corinthians (1 Cor. ix. 7), “Who ever serves as a soldier at his own charges? Who plants a vineyard and does not eat of its fruit? Who feeds the flock and does not eat of the milk of the flock?” St. Paul alleges these examples (as the Gloss remarks) in order to prove that the Apostles did not claim more than was their due if, according to the precept of our Lord, they who preached the Gospel lived by it, and likewise freely accepted the charity of those to whom they freely ministered. Now it is quite certain that a soldier, and a vinedresser, and a herdsman, ought to live by the fruit of their toil. Therefore, as not only prelates, but all preachers, labour to announce the Gospel, they have a right to accept the means of subsistence from those among whom they labour. -

St. Paul likewise maintains that the Apostles has a right to accept temporal assistance from those to whom they ministered spiritual good. For it is not out of order for him who gives great things to receive small things in exchange. To quote St. Paul’s own words, “If we have sown for you spiritual things, is it a great matter if we reap your carnal things? (1 Cor. ix. 2). “Now the spiritual truths taught by prelates are proclaimed, equally by all preachers bearing an episcopal commission. There is therefore no reason why they, as well as prelates, should not accept material means of support. +

St. Paul likewise maintains that the Apostles have a right to accept temporal assistance from those to whom they ministered spiritual good. For it is not out of order for him who gives great things to receive small things in exchange. To quote St. Paul’s own words, “If we have sown for you spiritual things, is it a great matter if we reap your carnal things? (1 Cor. ix. 2). “Now the spiritual truths taught by prelates are proclaimed, equally by all preachers bearing an episcopal commission. There is therefore no reason why they, as well as prelates, should not accept material means of support.

3. In the first Chapter of the Epistle just quoted, St. Paul likewise says: “The Lord has ordained that they who preach the Gospel should also live by the Gospel.” The Gloss observes: “The reason why this command was given was to render preachers more diligent in their office. “Now all (not only prelates) whose duty it is to preach ought to be zealous in so doing. Therefore, the rule laid down by our Lord applies not only to prelates, but to all who preach the word of God. This is plain by the very words of St. Paul. He does not say, “all who have ordinary authority to preach,” but, “those who preach the Gospel.” -

4. When our Lord sent forth His disciples to preach, He said: “Remain in the same house, eating and drinking such things as they have. For the labourer is worthy of his hire.” This passage proves that preachers earn their living, as payment due to them, from those to whom they preach The following observation from, the Gloss renders this proposition still more clear. “A preacher is entitled to two rewards for his one work. One reward he receives on earth, in the support afforded to him in his labour; the other reward awaits him in heaven, in a glorious resurrection.” Now reward is due not to power, nor to authority, nor to habit, but to deed; for deeds alone are meritorious. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “As in the Olympian games, the crown was given not to the strongest nor to the noblest, but to those who fought most strenuously and who, therefore, were victorious; so they are rightly deemed the most illustrious who in life have done the best and bravest deeds.” St, Paul again says: “he... is not crowned, unless he strives lawfully.” They, therefore, whether prelates or not, who legitimately preach the Gospel, may lawfully live by it (2 Tim. 11. 5). +

4. When our Lord sent forth His disciples to preach, He said: “Remain in the same house, eating and drinking such things as they have. For the labourer is worthy of his hire.” This passage proves that preachers earn their living, as payment due to them, from those to whom they preach. The following observation from the Gloss renders this proposition still more clear. “A preacher is entitled to two rewards for his one work. One reward he receives on earth, in the support afforded to him in his labour; the other reward awaits him in heaven, in a glorious resurrection.” Now reward is due not to power, nor to authority, nor to habit, but to deed; for deeds alone are meritorious. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “As in the Olympian games, the crown was given not to the strongest nor to the noblest, but to those who fought most strenuously and who, therefore, were victorious; so they are rightly deemed the most illustrious who in life have done the best and bravest deeds.” St, Paul again says: “he... is not crowned, unless he strives lawfully.” They, therefore, whether prelates or not, who legitimately preach the Gospel, may lawfully live by it (2 Tim. 11. 5).

5. They who are sent by bishops to preach, labour more than do the others of the order from which they are sent, or than they who, at the bidding of a bishop, send them. But it is lawful for the rest of an order to live on the alms given to its preachers, even though those preachers be not prelates. This is proved by the following words: “It has pleased them of Macedonia and Achaia to make a contribution for the poor saints that are in Jerusalem. For it has pleased them, and they are their debtors. For, if the Gentiles have been made partakers of their spiritual things” (i.e., according to the Gloss, “partakers of the spiritual advantages of the Jews who had sent them preachers from Jerusalem”), “they ought also in carnal things to minister to them” (Rom xv. 26). Now by the “poor” of whom St. Paul here speaks, we cannot understand the Apostles. For, as they were only twelve in number, and were content with little, they did not need a collection to be made for them in all the Churches, especially as we know that they were supported by those to whom they preached (1 Cor. ix). Hence all preachers, even though they are not bishops, but are sent by bishops, have a right to live by the Gospel.

6. They who, by episcopal commission, are employed in preaching are of far greater use to bishops in spreading the word of God, than are they who are engaged in other functions of the ministry. Now prelates who preach may accept alms, not only for themselves, but for their households. More justly then may they who preach by episcopal commission, accept from the faithful the means of subsistence.

7. He who gives to another gratis what he is not obliged to give, has as good a right to take a reward as he who does merely what he is obliged to do. Now it is a bounden duty for bishops to minister to their flocks in spiritual matters. For, as St. Paul says: “If I preach the Gospel, it is no glory to me, for an obligation lies on me; for woe to me if I do not preach the Gospel” (1 Cor. ix, 16). They therefore who are not prelates, and have not the responsibility of a flock, are justified in accepting material assistance from those to whom they preach. -

8. St. Augustine says in De opere monachorum: “ If they (i.e., religious) are preachers of the Gospel, I admit their right,” i.e. to live on the alms of the faithful. But these words apply not only to prelates, but to all who can preach, even to deacons. Hence St. Paul says (Eph. iv. 11): “He gave some Apostles, and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some others pastors and doctors.” The Apostle thus draws a distinction between Evangelists and Pastors and Apostles, by which term we are to understand prelates. Hence all preachers, be they prelates or not, may live by the Gospel. -

9. Preaching is the noblest of all ecclesiastical functions.“Our Lord declared that this was the purpose of His coming into the world. “For this was I sent” (Luke iv. 43). Isaiah also, speaking in the person of Christ, says: “He sent me to preach to the meek” (Isa. lxi. 1). St. Paul likewise says: “Christ sent me not to baptise, but to preach the Gospel” (1 Cor. i. 17). Now they who are engaged in the business of the Church ought not to work with their hands, but to live on the property of the Church, as St. Augustine says (De opere Monach.), speaking of himself. This rule applies much more forcibly to those engaged in preaching, who have every right to live by the Gospel, instead of by manual labour. +

8. St. Augustine says in De opere monachorum: “If they (i.e., religious) are preachers of the Gospel, I admit their right,” i.e. to live on the alms of the faithful. But these words apply not only to prelates, but to all who can preach, even to deacons. Hence St. Paul says (Eph. iv. 11): “He gave some Apostles, and some prophets, and some evangelists, and some others pastors and doctors.” The Apostle thus draws a distinction between Evangelists and Pastors and Apostles, by which term we are to understand prelates. Hence all preachers, be they prelates or not, may live by the Gospel. +

9. Preaching is the noblest of all ecclesiastical functions. Our Lord declared that this was the purpose of His coming into the world. “For this was I sent” (Luke iv. 43). Isaiah also, speaking in the person of Christ, says: “He sent me to preach to the meek” (Isa. lxi. 1). St. Paul likewise says: “Christ sent me not to baptise, but to preach the Gospel” (1 Cor. i. 17). Now they who are engaged in the business of the Church ought not to work with their hands, but to live on the property of the Church, as St. Augustine says (De opere Monach.), speaking of himself. This rule applies much more forcibly to those engaged in preaching, who have every right to live by the Gospel, instead of by manual labour.

10. The office of a preacher is more useful to the community than is that of a lawyer. But lawyers may, from the legitimate exercise of their profession, earn a livelihood. Therefore, preachers, may, if their preaching be authorised, live by means of it, whether they be prelates or not.

11. Although alms cannot be given out of money made by usury, preachers may, nevertheless, accept alms from money thus gained, provided they cannot, without so doing, remain in a place inhabited by usurers. The reason for this concession is that preachers, by inducing usurers to restore their illgotten gains, are directing the affairs of those to whom this money is due. This is distinctly established in the decretal Extra de sent. excom., cap. cum voluntate. But preachers are, in like manner, occupied with the affairs of all men, both rich and poor, when they urge the rich to give alms to the poor and to perform other salutary works. Hence they are justified in accepting alms from those to whom they preach.

12. We see that in mechanical trades, it is not they only who work with their hands who live by the trade, but the architect who directs their labour profits by it likewise. Now the man who teaches morals is, so to speak, the architect of all human duties (I Ethic.). Therefore, preachers have a right to live by their preaching, even though they do not work with their hands. @@ -535,10 +535,10 @@

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Our next task will be to show that preachers may not only live by alms freely offered to them, but that they may likewise beg for charity.

1. This is proved by the example of Christ, speaking in whose person the Psalmist says: “But I am a beggar and poor” (Ps. xxxix. 18). The Gloss remarks on this text: “Christ speaks thus of Himself in the form of a servant.” Again: “A beggar is one who asks from another; a poor man one who has not enough for himself.”

2. In Ps. lxix. 6, we find the words: “But I am needy and poor.” On which the Gloss says: “I am needy”; i.e., begging, and poor, i.e., “I do not have te means to support myself.” He who speaks thus owns no material wealth; and, having spiritual riches, he ever desires more, craves for it, and receives it. -

3. In Ps. lviii. 6 we read: “He persecutes the poor man and the beggar,” i.e. “ Christ,” as the Gloss expounds it. Another commentary says: “It is pure malice to persecute the poor. Rich men may sometimes suffer persecution on account of their position or wealth.” Both these commentaries show that the words of the Psalm are understood as being an allusion to material poverty. -

4. St. Paul says (2 Cor. viii. 9): You know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ that, being rich, He became poor for your sakes,” i.e., “in the world” (Gloss). That the poverty of Christ ought to be imitated is proved by the Gloss in the following words: “Let no one despise himself. He who inhabits a poor dwelling is rich in conscience, and he sleeps more peacefully on the ground, than the wealthy man can rest amidst his gold and purple. Fear not then in your misery, to approach Him who has put on our poverty.” -

5. our Lord asked for hospitality. We know this by His words to Zacchaeus: “ Come down quickly; for today I must abide in your house” (Luke xix. 5). The Gloss says: “He offers Himself, although He has not been invited. For He knew the disposition of Zacchaeus’ heart, although he had uttered no word of invitation. -

6. We read in St. Mark xi. “Having viewed all things round about, when now the eventide was come.” The Gloss understands these words to mean: “ having looked all around Him to see if any would offer Him hospitality. For He was so poor and so carefully avoided flattering any man that He found none to shelter Him in all that large city.” Hence we see that the poverty of our Lord was so extreme that He possessed nothing with which to hire a lodging, but sought and hoped for hospitality from others. It is, therefore, blasphemous to say that it is unlawful to beg. +

3. In Ps. lviii. 6 we read: “He persecutes the poor man and the beggar,” i.e. “Christ,” as the Gloss expounds it. Another commentary says: “It is pure malice to persecute the poor. Rich men may sometimes suffer persecution on account of their position or wealth.” Both these commentaries show that the words of the Psalm are understood as being an allusion to material poverty. +

4. St. Paul says (2 Cor. viii. 9): “You know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ that, being rich, He became poor for your sakes,” i.e., “in the world” (Gloss). That the poverty of Christ ought to be imitated is proved by the Gloss in the following words: “Let no one despise himself. He who inhabits a poor dwelling is rich in conscience, and he sleeps more peacefully on the ground, than the wealthy man can rest amidst his gold and purple. Fear not then in your misery, to approach Him who has put on our poverty.” +

5. our Lord asked for hospitality. We know this by His words to Zacchaeus: “Come down quickly; for today I must abide in your house” (Luke xix. 5). The Gloss says: “He offers Himself, although He has not been invited. For He knew the disposition of Zacchaeus’ heart, although he had uttered no word of invitation. +

6. We read in St. Mark xi. “Having viewed all things round about, when now the eventide was come.” The Gloss understands these words to mean: “having looked all around Him to see if any would offer Him hospitality. For He was so poor and so carefully avoided flattering any man that He found none to shelter Him in all that large city.” Hence we see that the poverty of our Lord was so extreme that He possessed nothing with which to hire a lodging, but sought and hoped for hospitality from others. It is, therefore, blasphemous to say that it is unlawful to beg.

7. The same lesson is taught by the example of the Apostles. They were instructed by our Lord not to take with them on their way what they needed for their journey (Matt. x, Mark vi, Luke ix). They could not have taken what they needed as a right; they must, therefore, have begged for it.

8. Again, the same fact is made evident by the conduct of the Apostles after the resurrection of Christ. St. John says (3 Eph. v. 7.): “For his name, they went out” (“away,” as the Gloss expresses it), “taking nothing from the Gentiles.” Hence they went forth without the necessities of life. These, therefore, they must have gained by begging,

9. A man is more strictly bound to provide for himself than for others. Now the Apostles asked for alms for “the poor of the saints who were in Jerusalem.” If then it be lawful to beg for our brethren, it is equally right to do so for ourselves. @@ -550,7 +550,7 @@

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15. It is lawful to ask another for a favour, if, by so doing, we give him a chance of improving his condition. Now by giving alms, a man betters his condition by meriting eternal life. Hence it cannot be unlawful to ask for charity.

16. The needs of the poor cannot be relieved unless they be known; and they cannot be known unless they be revealed. Hence if it is right for any to be in a state of destitution, it is right for them to beg for what they need. But, as we have already proved, it is lawful for men to reduce themselves to such poverty for the love of God that even (as St. Augustine says in De opere monachorum) their manual labour does not suffice to support them. It is, therefore, justifiable in them to beg.

We shall now prove that it is right to give alms to mendicant religious. -

1. St. John says (3 John), “Dearly beloved, do faithfully whatever you do for the brethrens and for strangers.” He immediately points out to whom he refers by saying: “For his name they went out” (i.e., “ leaving their own possessions,” Gloas). And again, “We, therefore, ought to receive such.” The Gloss here remarks: “John had renounced all things, but he speaks of himself as belonging to the number of the rich, in order to make those whom he addresses more prompt and more ready in helping the needy.” Hence it is praiseworthy to give alms to those who, for the love of Christ, live without possessions of their own. +

1. St. John says (3 John), “Dearly beloved, do faithfully whatever you do for the brethrens and for strangers.” He immediately points out to whom he refers by saying: “For his name they went out” (i.e., “leaving their own possessions,” Gloas). And again, “We, therefore, ought to receive such.” The Gloss here remarks: “John had renounced all things, but he speaks of himself as belonging to the number of the rich, in order to make those whom he addresses more prompt and more ready in helping the needy.” Hence it is praiseworthy to give alms to those who, for the love of Christ, live without possessions of their own.

2. We read in Matt. x. 41, “He who receives a just man in the name of a just man shall receive the reward of a just man.” The Gloss remarks that “on this account he is called just.” The Gloss also adds, “Someone may therefore say: ‘We shall thus receive false prophets, and the traitor Judas.’ But the Lord, foreseeing this objection, says not that persons are to be received but their names; and that he who receives another shall not be deprived of a reward on account of the unworthiness of the object of his charity.” Hence we must conclude that alms are to be given to those who bear, even though unjustly, the name of sanctity.

3. St. Paul (Rom. xv.) praises the faithful of Macedonia and Achaia for their resolution to make a collection for the poor among the saints. The Gloss remarks hereon: “These men devoted themselves wholly to the Divine service, heeding no worldly matters, and caring only to set an example of holy living to those who believed.” The Achaians and Macedonians had made a collection for these good men; and St. Paul invites the Romans to do the same. Hence we see that alms may be given to the poor of Christ.

4. The Gloss says, commenting on the words (2 Cor. vii), “let your abundance supply their want,” i.e., “the want of those who have renounced all earthly things.” These words are a further confirmation of the opinion which we have already expressed. @@ -578,8 +578,8 @@

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12. It was the custom amongst the Jews that their teachers should be maintained by the people. At the preaching of the Gospel, this custom became general among the faithful. When the Gentiles were first converted, the Apostles refused to ask or accept assistance from them, fearing lest they might take scandal. There is now, however, no reason to fear such scandal. Indeed, the example of moderation in food and clothing set by religious, is a subject rather of edification than of scandal. They who profess to be scandalized at the sight of religious accepting alms are like the Pharisee who, as we are told in St. Matt. xv., took scandal at our Lord, and whom He told His disciples to ignore. The case would be very different were religious to accept alms, not in order to provide for themselves the necessities of life, but for the sake of amassing wealth or of indulging in riotous living.

13. To the thirteenth objection, we may reply, as St. Jerome replied to Vigilantius that according to the same reasoning virginity is not a good thing, “for if all were virgins, the human race would cease.” Again, “virtue is rare and desired by few; it would be wonderful if all men resembled those few of whom it is said: ‘many indeed are called but few are chosen.’” This is the answer to the thirteenth objection. The works of perfection are so difficult that but very few attempt to accomplish them. There is, therefore, no grounds for fearing that the world will cease to exist on account of the perfection of its inhabitants.

We must now proceed to answer the arguments of those who maintain that it is not lawful to seek alms by begging. -

1. The words: “ There shall be no poor man and no beggar amongst you,” do not forbid persons to embrace the condition of poverty and mendicity. These words prohibit men to leave their neighbours in a condition of misery, which forces them to beg. This is proved by the words. occurring in the same chapter of Deuteronomy: “of your countrymen and neighbour you shall not have power to demand it again.” On these words, the Gloss observes: “Although all men be our neighbours, we are chiefly bound to show mercy to those who, together with ourselves, are the members of Christ.” Hence although charity is enjoined, mendicity is not forbidden. -

2. The Gloss interprets the words, “ I have not seen tho,just man forsaken by God,” to mean: “I have not seen the seed of the just man perishing for want of spiritual food, i.e. the Word of God; for the Word of God is always with him.” But, if this text be understood to refer to material bread, it means that the just are not reduced to beggary by necessity, or because God has deserted them; since it is said: “I will not leave you nor forsake you” (Hebr. xvi. 5). The words do not mean that just men may not, for love of God, embrace poverty, although they did not do so in the days of the Psalmist. For such works of perfection were reserved for the time of Grace. +

1. The words: “There shall be no poor man and no beggar amongst you,” do not forbid persons to embrace the condition of poverty and mendicity. These words prohibit men to leave their neighbours in a condition of misery, which forces them to beg. This is proved by the words. occurring in the same chapter of Deuteronomy: “of your countrymen and neighbour you shall not have power to demand it again.” On these words, the Gloss observes: “Although all men be our neighbours, we are chiefly bound to show mercy to those who, together with ourselves, are the members of Christ.” Hence although charity is enjoined, mendicity is not forbidden. +

2. The Gloss interprets the words, “I have not seen tho,just man forsaken by God,” to mean: “I have not seen the seed of the just man perishing for want of spiritual food, i.e. the Word of God; for the Word of God is always with him.” But, if this text be understood to refer to material bread, it means that the just are not reduced to beggary by necessity, or because God has deserted them; since it is said: “I will not leave you nor forsake you” (Hebr. xvi. 5). The words do not mean that just men may not, for love of God, embrace poverty, although they did not do so in the days of the Psalmist. For such works of perfection were reserved for the time of Grace.

3. It is not unfitting that what indicted on one man as a penalty may be, in another, a self-imposed work of justice. Criminals have their goods confiscated as a legal punishment; but this is no reason why other men may not despoil themselves of their possessions for the love of God. Again, beggary may fall upon sinners as a Divine chastisement; but this is no reason why mendicity, voluntarily embraced for Christ, should not be a work of justice.

4. The Gloss understands the text quoted in the fourth objection to mean that men are not to beg avariciously. Otherwise the commentary would not be in harmony with the text. The text says: “that you want nothing of any man’s.” Now they beg avariciously who seek, not merely necessary food and clothing, but who further desire to amass riches. This, as has been already pointed out, is made clear by the words in 1 Tim. vi. quoted above.

15. There are two kinds of mendicity, namely, voluntary and compulsory. Those reduced to beggary against their will, are liable to be tempted to impatience. Voluntary mendicity, which does not proceed from avarice, has the merit of humility. Hence St. Augustine does not forbid voluntary mendicity. He simply teaches that the occasion of compulsory beggary should be avoided by the poor of Christ by means of manual labour. This is evident by his words: “that they may not be compelled by need etc. @@ -589,12 +589,12 @@

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9. Shame results from a base action: baseness is opposed to beauty. Hence baseness, and the shame consequent upon it, must be distinguished according to the kind of beauty to which it is opposed. Beauty may be either spiritual or physical. Spiritual beauty consists in a well ordered soul, and in abundance of spiritual gifts. Hence all that arises from a deficiency of spiritual good, or which points to spiritual disorder, is base. Physical beauty consists in symmetry of body and in the due proportion of such things as pertain to corporeal perfection. Bodily deformity or deficiency is, in a certain sense, base. And as both spiritual and physical beauty are loved and desired, spiritual and physical deformity cause a certain shame. Thus, a man is ashamed of being poor or unsightly or ignorant or awkward. Since spiritual deformity is always reprehensible, all that produces the shame of such deformity ought to be avoided. We speak not of the confession of sins, for the shiner is ashamed, not of his confession, but of the guilt which he acknowledges. But holy men think little of physical defect or deformity. In fact, they embrace it willingly for the love of Christ and for the sake of perfection. Hence the ignominy that accompanies such physical deformity is not always an object of contempt. Sometimes, indeed, it is worthy of high praise, as when it is assumed for the sake of humility. Now beggary is shameful, inasmuch as it is a disgrace attached to a material deficiency. For a beggar acknowledges that he is poor and is often subject to the one to whom he appeals for the relief of his needs. But beggary undertaken for the sake of Christ deserves honour rather than contempt.

10. A man who is asked for charity ought not to be wearied, if the petition is properly made. And if he is wearied, the fault lies in him for giving alms in order to free himself from importunity, rather than with him who asks in a becoming manner, for the relief of his needs. But, if the petition is not rightly made, the fault lies with the petitioner.

We shall next undertake to answer, in their proper order, the arguments of those who hold that religious who preach may not live on charity, or beg for alms. -

1. It by no means follows that because preachers live on alms, they must necessarily be flatterers. When they preach without flattery, they often find but small favour among wicked and carnal-minded men, although they are approved of by the good; in face, sometimes they have to suffer at the hands of those whose favour they could not win without adulation. At other times they are well received by good men who do not wish to be flattered. They thus resemble Lord who, at times, had no roof to shelter Him, and at other times was entertained by many and who received the ministry of women who followed Him, as we read in Luke (viii.). Thus likewise the Apostles sometimes endured great distress; and at other times they were well supplied, behaving with discretion under both circumstances. “I know,” says St. Paul (Phil. iv. 12), “ how to abound and how to suffer want.” Vicissitudes of this description are the common experience of poor preachers in our own days. +

1. It by no means follows that because preachers live on alms, they must necessarily be flatterers. When they preach without flattery, they often find but small favour among wicked and carnal-minded men, although they are approved of by the good; in face, sometimes they have to suffer at the hands of those whose favour they could not win without adulation. At other times they are well received by good men who do not wish to be flattered. They thus resemble Lord who, at times, had no roof to shelter Him, and at other times was entertained by many and who received the ministry of women who followed Him, as we read in Luke (viii.). Thus likewise the Apostles sometimes endured great distress; and at other times they were well supplied, behaving with discretion under both circumstances. “I know,” says St. Paul (Phil. iv. 12), “how to abound and how to suffer want.” Vicissitudes of this description are the common experience of poor preachers in our own days.

2. Preachers, by asking for charity, do nothing that can be an occasion of avarice. Avarice is an inordinate love of possessing. It is not inordinate to wish to have necessary food and clothing. “Having what to eat, and wherewith to be clothed, with these we are content” (1 Tim. vi. 8). Hence poor men are not, by begging for the necessities of life, exposed to any danger of avarice.

3. Prewhers ought not to desire material assistance as their primary end or object. They may, however ask for such temporal goods as a secondary end, or as the means whereby they may be enabled to achieve their primary end, which is the preaching of the Gospel. Commenting on the words, “Seek first the Kingdom of God and His justice” (Matt. vi. 36), the Gloss says: “By these words, our Lord shows us that we are not to desire temporal things as our chief and most necessary good. We are to seek the Kingdom of Heaven, and to set it before us as our end, and do all things for the attainment of that end. Let us then eat in order to preach, but not preach in order to eat.”

4. The stipend which preachers receive is due to them for their work. They have a twofold right to the alms which they accept. A debt may be due by a double right. Some have a right to payment as a debt of legal justice due to them. Such a debt is the one resulting from the compact made between a workman and his employer, whereby the labourer can sue his employer for his wages. Others can likewise claim a reward as a debt of friendly justice. For when one man does a service to another, it is only fair that the other should make the best return within his power, although his friend cannot legally compel him to make any return. Aristotle speaks of this twofold sort of justice in VIII Ethics. I maintain, therefore, that when a prelate is set over the people, they have a right to demand spiritual ministrations from him; and he has a right to claim material assistance from them. But the people cannot claim spiritual service from any save prelates. Neither on the other hand, even though they preach by the permission of prelates, can any of the clergy who are not prelates, claim material assistance from the laity. They can only do so if they are appointed to be, in all things, the vicars of prelates. Hence we see that the poor who render no service whatsoever stand on a different footing in the matter of accepting alms, to religious who preach by permission of prelates, and are not themselves prelates, and to prelates themselves. For the poor accept everything gratis; and thus are mere mendicants. But preachers who are not prelates accept charity as a recompense due to them, although they cannot enforce its payment. Bishops, however, have compulsory power and can exact payment as a right. Nevertheless, if he who has the right to demand something does not assert this right, but begs for what he needs as if it were a free gift, he does no harm to anyone; but by his example he shows the beauty of humility.

The fifth objection is answered by saying that St. Paul wished to show that he had as good a right as the other Apostles to receive the donations of the faithful. And in order to make good this point, he began by proving that he was an Apostle just like the other Apostles. -

6. The false apostles were unjust usurpers when they accepted the contributions of the faithful. Three reasons prove this. First, they taught a doctrine that was false and contrary to the Gospel. For, as the Gloss observes, on the words “we likewise beseech you, brethren” (Rom. xvi.), “ they forced believers to follow Jewish rites.” Secondly, they preached without any commission from the true Apostles. Therefore St. Paul says that they “came in privately.” Thirdly, they behaved as if they possessed the authority of Apostles. Now as the objection ignores these three points, the reasoning contained in it is worthless. +

6. The false apostles were unjust usurpers when they accepted the contributions of the faithful. Three reasons prove this. First, they taught a doctrine that was false and contrary to the Gospel. For, as the Gloss observes, on the words “we likewise beseech you, brethren” (Rom. xvi.), “they forced believers to follow Jewish rites.” Secondly, they preached without any commission from the true Apostles. Therefore St. Paul says that they “came in privately.” Thirdly, they behaved as if they possessed the authority of Apostles. Now as the objection ignores these three points, the reasoning contained in it is worthless.

17. Preaching religious beg for what is, according to the second mode of justice, due to them; for a debt is a matter of justice. But they are the more to be commended, in as much as they ask for that which is their due as though it were a free gift.

8. Prelates who receive tithes and offerings from their people, and who duly minister to them, may elect certain coadjutors to assist them more efficiently in so doing. Such conduct is not unfair to the faithful. For if the laity give more temporal alms than is agreed upon, they receive, in return, more spiritual assistance than the prelates are obliged to give. Furthermore, their alms are not taken as a right, but are accepted thankfully and humbly.

9. Everyone may renounce what is owing to him. Thus, although bishops are bound to support those whom they send to preach, the preachers may renounce their claim to such support. They do not, for this reason, become a burden on the people to whom they are sent. For they ask nothing from them but necessary food; and this they do not claim as a right but beg for as alms, according as each one of their hearers may have determined in his heart. They thus imitate the example of St. Paul (2 Cor. viii-ix). @@ -605,7 +605,7 @@

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We will next reply, one by one, to the arguments brought to show that alms ought not to be given to religious:

1. The words “call the poor, from whom you have at present nothing to expect,” mean only that in giving alms the intention of receiving a reward must not be present to the mind, though they may receive it in the future. For there is no one so poor that he may not, in some case of emergency, be of use to us. This is made clear by the following words of the Gloss: “If you invite others in order to be invited yourself, you may deceive yourself.” Neither are we to understand that there will be no eternal reward for those who call together rich men or their own kinsfolk, for such an invitation may proceed from charity, and may be given for the love of God. Hence the Gloss says: “Those who invite the poor expect a future recompense; those who call together their friends and brethren, or wealthy people, have their reward now. But if, like the sons of Job, they entertain rich persons for the love of God, then He who commands us to practise brotherly love will reward such hospitality equally with other works of charity.” But we are not to conclude that it is a sin to entertain our kinsfolk, even from mere natural affection, but only that such hospitality does not deserve an everlasting recompense. The Gloss remarks: “Our Lord does not forbid us to call together our wealthy friends, and our kinsmen, as if it were criminal to do so. He only tells us that such an invitation, will not be rewarded with eternal life.”

2. The saying of St. Augustine, adduced in the second, objection, is to be understood in the same sense as that of Sirach (xii. 4), “Give to the merciful, and uphold not the sinners.” The Gloss observes on this text: “Do not encourage sinners in their sinful ways; do not hold communication with them, as they do who entertain actors, and suffer the poor of Christ to hunger.” But he who gives to a sinner who is in want, not in order to encourage him to sin, but because he recognises him as a man, assists not a sinner but a just man, because he loves not the sinner but human nature. It is better, however, to withhold an alms, than to give it to a man because he is a sinner, or in order to cause him to sin. But it does not follow that we may not bestow charity on the poor of Christ who do no manual work. For, as we have already shown, they commit no sin by omitting to perform such labour. And even were their omission criminal, we would not be assisting them because they are sinners, but because they are in distress. -

3. He who asks in an unbecoming manner should not obtain what he demands; he should rather bo corrected. But he who begs befittingly should, if possible, receive what he asks for. Hence St. Gregory, XXL Moral., says on the words of Job: “ If I have denied to the poor what they desired,” that “the holy man, in this saying, bears testimony to himself that he not only assisted the poor in their needs, but condescended to their desires. But what is to be done when the poor ask for things that are not expedient for them to have? Or, since in Holy Scripture, the poor are spoken of as being humble, are we to consider that they ought to have only those things for which they ask with humility? It is certain that we ought to give them those things that they beg humbly for, i.e. that they ask for out of necessity, not out of covetousness. For it would be great pride if they were to beg for what is unsuited to their condition of poverty.” We should, therefore, unhesitatingly, assist the poor in their necessities, and we should. rebuke those who ask for superfluities. +

3. He who asks in an unbecoming manner should not obtain what he demands; he should rather bo corrected. But he who begs befittingly should, if possible, receive what he asks for. Hence St. Gregory, XXL Moral., says on the words of Job: “If I have denied to the poor what they desired,” that “the holy man, in this saying, bears testimony to himself that he not only assisted the poor in their needs, but condescended to their desires. But what is to be done when the poor ask for things that are not expedient for them to have? Or, since in Holy Scripture, the poor are spoken of as being humble, are we to consider that they ought to have only those things for which they ask with humility? It is certain that we ought to give them those things that they beg humbly for, i.e. that they ask for out of necessity, not out of covetousness. For it would be great pride if they were to beg for what is unsuited to their condition of poverty.” We should, therefore, unhesitatingly, assist the poor in their necessities, and we should. rebuke those who ask for superfluities.

4. As it is said in the fourth objection, we must refuse alms when, by giving them, we would encourage the recipients to commit injustice; but we should not refuse such assistance in cases of extreme necessity. But as mendicant religious ask for alms not for criminal purposes, but for the furtherance of their sacred labours, this proposition does not apply to them.

5. St. Ambrose does not say, in the words referred to, that infirmity of health or the shame experienced by those who beg are to be considered as reasons for giving alms. We give alms on account of the need of those who ask for them. What St. Ambrose says is that we should give more abundantly to those who are sick and to those who are ashamed of begging. He does not say that we are not to give to those who are in good health, and to those who are not ashamed to beg; but that, other things being equal, the sick and retiring are especially deserving of our charity. But sickness and reluctance to beg are not the only conditions which should, excite our charity. We must also consider the reputation of the one who asks us, his claims upon us, his needs, etc. It is not only those who have lost their fortune by accident who feel ashamed to beg. Religious, who have voluntarily renounced all things for the love of God, experience the reluctance. For they often belong to noble families; and shame at begging is therefore natural to them. But in religious this natural shame, like other passions, is perhaps more fully subject to reason than is the case with laymen.

6. Although there may be many reasons for giving more abundant alms to one man than to another, we cannot conclude for any one reason that one man always deserves more assistance than others. Thus the fact that a man is in greater need than are others is not always a reason why he should be helped more than others. For a man in less distressed circumstances might be able to show cause why he should receive more assistance from us than a neighbour poorer than he. Aristotle teaches (Ethics IX) that the preponderating reason for relieving another is his claim upon us. For, except under very peculiar circumstances, we are more strictly bound to pay a debt than to give a favour. Now as we owe preachers the necessities of life as a stipend for their labours, we are bound in a special manner to bestow our alms upon them, especially when they are in distress. This is a debt of justice. This, therefore, we ought to pay, unless there are many grave reasons to prevent our so doing. @@ -633,7 +633,7 @@

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4. St. Augustine says (III De doctrina Christiana), “Whoever makes a more limited use of temporal things than is customary with those among whom he lives, is guilty either of superstition or of indiscretion.” Hence he who wears clothing, meaner than that worn by those around him, is deserving of blame.

5. St. Jerome, writing to Nepotianus, says: “Wear neither sad-coloured, nor white garments. Sumptuous apparel and slovenly dress are equally to be avoided. For the one denotes luxury, and the other vain glory.” Hence we see the error of dressing in a beggarly fashion.

6. St. Paul says (Rom. xiv. 17), “The Kingdom of God is not meat and drink.” On these words, the Gloss observes: “It matters little of what quality our food may be, or what quantity we may consume, so long as our nourishment is adapted to the condition of those with whom we live and of our own, and to the requirements of our health.” For the same reason, the fashion of a man’s clothing has no connection with virtue, provided that he wear what is becoming to his condition. Hence it is no mark of a truly religious man to wear a mean dress as a sign of contempt of the world. -

7. Hypocrisy would seem to be the worst of all sins. For, our Lord inveighed more forcibly against hypocrites than against any other class of sinner. St. Gregory says (Pastoral.), “ None do more harm in the Church than sinners who have a reputation for, or appearance of, sanctity.” Hypocrisy lurks under shabby clothing, just as costliness of attire betokens luxury or stimulates men to pride. It is more sinful, therefore, to exceed the limits of discretion by poverty of attire than by gaudiness of apparel. +

7. Hypocrisy would seem to be the worst of all sins. For, our Lord inveighed more forcibly against hypocrites than against any other class of sinner. St. Gregory says (Pastoral.), “None do more harm in the Church than sinners who have a reputation for, or appearance of, sanctity.” Hypocrisy lurks under shabby clothing, just as costliness of attire betokens luxury or stimulates men to pride. It is more sinful, therefore, to exceed the limits of discretion by poverty of attire than by gaudiness of apparel.

8. Our Lord Jesus Christ gave us an example of the perfection of holiness and of religion. But, he wore a precious garment, namely, a coat woven throughout (John xix. 23). Such clothes are normally sewn with silk and gold. The fact that the soldiers would not divide it, but cast lots for it, is a proof that it must have been costly. Hence wearing mean clothing can be no part of religion.

9. The Sovereign Pontiff wears costly silken robes; the kings of old were clad in scarlet; and it would not have been praiseworthy in them had they worn contemptible garments. For the same reason, it is not meritorious on the part of anyone, to wear garments unbecoming his station; rather, the shabbiness of his clothing brings humility into disrepute.

We will now expose the fallacy contained in the foregoing arguments. @@ -678,15 +678,15 @@

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1. St. Paul says (2 Thess. iii. 11), “We have heard that there are some among you that walk disorderly.” On account of this text, religious who travel, are called by their enemies wanderers (gyrovagi).

2. The following words of St. Augustine are likewise, quoted against them, “Some monks,” he says, “bear no commission; yet they are never quiet, never settled, never at rest” (De opere Monachorum).

3. On the words, “Whichever house you enter, there abide” (Mark vi. 10), the Gloss says: “It is not becoming in a preacher, to run from house to house and to change the place wherein he enjoys hospitality.” -

4. The following words of Isaiah, (xxx. 7), are quoted in the same sense: “Therefore, have I cried concerning this: It is pride; only sit still [Vulgate],” i.e., “abide in your own land “ (Gloss). +

4. The following words of Isaiah, (xxx. 7), are quoted in the same sense: “Therefore, have I cried concerning this: It is pride; only sit still [Vulgate],” i.e., “abide in your own land “(Gloss).

5. Again, we read in the Prophet Jeremias (xiv. 10): These people have loved to move their feet, they have not rested and have not pleased the Lord.”

This accusation of restlessness, brought against preachers, is nothing new. For Dionysius, in his letter to Apolophanius, says that when he was still a Gentile, he used to call St. Paul a wanderer round the world, because he obeyed the command of our Lord. “Go therefore into the whole world and preach the Gospel to every creature” (Mark xvi. 15).

1. In the Gospel of St. John (xv. 16), we, also, read that Christ said to His disciples: “I have chosen you that you should go, and should bring forth fruit.” -

2. The journeyings of preachers are symbolised by the words in Job, (xxxvii, 11), “ The clouds spread their light; they go round about, whithersoever the Will of Him who governs them leads them, to whatever he commands them on the face of the whole earth.” The Gloss hereon observes: “The clouds that spread their light typify holy preachers who by word and deed propagate the example of a good life and who illuminate all around them, because by their preaching they enlighten the ends of the earth. +

2. The journeyings of preachers are symbolised by the words in Job, (xxxvii, 11), “The clouds spread their light; they go round about, whithersoever the Will of Him who governs them leads them, to whatever he commands them on the face of the whole earth.” The Gloss hereon observes: “The clouds that spread their light typify holy preachers who by word and deed propagate the example of a good life and who illuminate all around them, because by their preaching they enlighten the ends of the earth.

3. Again the words in Job (xxxviii. 25), “Who gave a course to violent showers?” is interpreted, by the Gloss and by St. Gregory (Moral.) of the journeys of preachers.

4. We read (Zech. vi, 7), “The strong horse came out, eager to patrol the earth.” The Gloss again understands these words to refer to the Apostles and to other preachers.

5. St. Paul says (Rom. xvi.), “Salute those who are of Narcissus’ household.” The Gloss remarks that this Narcissus is said, in other codices, to have been a priest who journeyed about in order to confirm the brethren in the faith. -

6. “When they shall rush in to Jacob” (i.e., “ to preach,” says the Gloss), “they shall fill the face of the world with seed” (Isa. xxvii. 6), i.e. the seed of preaching” (Gloss). +

6. “When they shall rush in to Jacob” (i.e., “to preach,” says the Gloss), “they shall fill the face of the world with seed” (Isa. xxvii. 6), i.e. the seed of preaching” (Gloss).

7. In the Book of Proverbs (vi. 3) we find the words: “Run about, make haste, stir up your friend” (i.e. “from the sleep of sin,” Gloss). Now sinners are awakened by preaching. Therefore, journeys undertaken by preachers for the salvation of souls are praiseworthy.

8. “This was the vision running to and fro in the midst of the living creatures” (Ezek. i. 13). St. Gregory writes (homil. V, I part super Ezech.): “Pastors of souls, who have undertaken the duty of feeding their flock, ought but rarely to change their place of abode. But, they who journey abroad to preach are as wheels of fire, which move from place to place by the force of the flame of that holy desire which both consumes the preacher and inflames his hearers.” This passage teaches us two lessons, viz. that it is permissible for others, besides prelates, to preach; and that preachers ought to move from place to place, instead of remaining always in one spot.

9. St. Gregory, in the same homily, commenting on the words of Ezek. i., “When they walked, it was like the voice of a multitude, like the noise of an army,” says, “The camps of preachers move from one place to another, labouring for the salvation of souls.” We see, therefore, from all the passages that have been cited that the journeys undertaken by preachers in their zeal for souls are highly to be commended. @@ -700,7 +700,7 @@

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WE now proceed to consider the objections brought against the studious life led by religious.

1. We find (2 Tim. iii. 7) certain persons, who were a danger to the Church, accused of “ever learning and never attaining to the knowledge of the truth.” For this reason, it is considered a suspicious circumstance when religious are fond of study.

2. St. Gregory makes the following remarks on the words of Job xvi., “My enemy has looked at me with terrible eyes”: “The Incarnate Truth,” he writes (XIII Moral.), “chose for His preachers such as were poor, simple, and unlearned. But, on the other hand, the astute and double-tongued man, filled with the knowledge of this world, whom at the end of time the Apostate Angel will elect to propagate his falsehood, will be damned.” Hence religious, because they exercise the office of preaching in a learned manner, are regarded as the forerunners of Antichrist. -

3. “I saw another beast coming up out of the earth, and he had two horns like a lamb” (Rev. xiii. 11). On these words of the Apocalypse the Gloss remarks: “The description of the tribulation which will be caused by Antichrist and his princes is followed by a narrative of the evils which will befall the Church, by means of the apostles of Antichrist, who will travel throughout the entire world.” Again, “coming up out of the earth” signifies “ going forth to preach” (Gloss). On the words “it had two horns” the Gloss remarks: “These preachers are said to have two horns, because they will profess to imitate the innocent and spotless life of our Lord, to work miracles resembling His, and to preach His doctrine; or else because they will usurp to themselves the two Testaments.” Hence it would appear that they who go forth to preach, with the knowledge of the two Testaments, and with an appearance of sanctity, are the apostles of Antichrist. +

3. “I saw another beast coming up out of the earth, and he had two horns like a lamb” (Rev. xiii. 11). On these words of the Apocalypse the Gloss remarks: “The description of the tribulation which will be caused by Antichrist and his princes is followed by a narrative of the evils which will befall the Church, by means of the apostles of Antichrist, who will travel throughout the entire world.” Again, “coming up out of the earth” signifies “going forth to preach” (Gloss). On the words “it had two horns” the Gloss remarks: “These preachers are said to have two horns, because they will profess to imitate the innocent and spotless life of our Lord, to work miracles resembling His, and to preach His doctrine; or else because they will usurp to themselves the two Testaments.” Hence it would appear that they who go forth to preach, with the knowledge of the two Testaments, and with an appearance of sanctity, are the apostles of Antichrist.

4. “Knowledge puffs up, but charity edifies (1 Cor. viii. 1). Now as religious are in a peculiar manner bound to the practice of humility, they ought to abstain from knowledge.

5. Of St. Benedict, patriarch of religious, we are told that “he withdrew from the study of literature, and that his learning was unlearned and his wisdom untaught” (St. Greg, II Moral.). Hence after his example, religious should desist from study.

6. St. Paul (2 Thes. iii.), reproves those who neglected manual labour, and indulged themselves in curiosity and sloth. As then the acquisition of knowledge is curiosity, religious ought not to abandon manual labour for the sake of study. @@ -718,7 +718,7 @@

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12. On the words, “Daniel purposed in his heart” (Dan. i.), the Gloss says: “He who would not eat at the king’s table, lest he should thereby be defiled; he would never have studied the science of the Egyptians, had he considered it to be sinful. He studied it, however, not in order to follow it, but to judge and confute it. Now if a man, ignorant of mathematics, undertakes to argue with a mathematician, or if one who knows nothing of philosophy enter the lists against philosophers, what does he do, save expose himself to ridicule?”

From all that has been said, we see then that it is advisable for religious, and especially for preachers, to be learned, and that above all things they ought to have a good knowledge of Holy Scripture.

We will now proceed to answer the arguments brought forward by those who condemn learning in religious. -

1. The words (2 Tim. iii.), “Ever learning, and never attaining to a knowledge of the truth,” are a rebuke, not to such as are ever learning, but to those whose study withdraws them from the Faith, and who, therefore, never attain to the knowledge of the truth. Such men are “ reprobates at heart and blinded to the faith.” +

1. The words (2 Tim. iii.), “Ever learning, and never attaining to a knowledge of the truth,” are a rebuke, not to such as are ever learning, but to those whose study withdraws them from the Faith, and who, therefore, never attain to the knowledge of the truth. Such men are “reprobates at heart and blinded to the faith.”

2. When St. Gregory says that the preachers of Antichrist are learned in the knowledge of this world, he refers to those preachers who make use of earthly learning to draw their hearers to sin and to worldly desires. For, in the context to the words we have quoted, he cites the following verse of Isaiah (xviii. 1): “Woe to the land, the winged cymbal that sends ambassadors by the sea, and in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters.” Upon these words, St. Gregory makes this comment: “Paper is made from the reed papyrus. What then shall we understand by the bulrushes, or reeds, of which the prophet is speaking, save earthly learning? The vessels of bulrushes then ate the hearts of worldly men; and to send ambassadors upon the waters in vessels of bulrushes, is to base our preaching on the arguments of carnal wisdom, and to attract our hearers to sin.”

3. The words of the Gloss, quoted in the third objection, refer (as may be plainly seen by comparing this passage with many others) to preachers whom Antichrist will, at his coming into the world, send forth. Neither is the fact that the knowledge of the Old and the New Testament may be abused an argument against religious possessing such knowledge; unless we likewise say that because they may make a hypocritical display of innocence and purity of life, these virtues are therefore to be reprobated.

4. To the objection that “science puffs up,” we reply that it certainly does so, unless it is accompanied by charity. Thus, the Gloss says: “Knowledge alone puffs up, and again: “Add charity to your knowledge, and your knowledge will be useful.” Hence to those who practise works of mercy, learning will not be very dangerous. But if we are to avoid knowledge because it leads to pride, we ought, on the same grounds, to desist from any good work. For, St. Augustine says, “Pride insinuates itself into good actions, in order to render them worthless.” @@ -730,8 +730,8 @@

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WE Will now proceed to examine the objections brought against religious, on the score of their methodical and carefully prepared manner of preaching.

St. Paul says, “not in wisdom of speech, lest the cross of Christ should be made void” (1 Cor. i. 17). This the Gloss understands to mean, “not with eloquence or tropes of language. For the preaching of Christ does not need pompous words, lest it should proceed rather from the cunning of human wisdom than from truth.” It is, therefore, alleged that because religious preach with fluency and eloquence, they must be false apostles.

2. We read in the same Epistle to the Corinthians (ii, 1), “When I came to you, I came not in loftiness of speech,” i.e., says the Gloss, “I did not reason with you, nor use logical arguments. I displayed no wisdom. Neither did I, in my preaching, treat of the speculations of physical science.” St. Paul continues, “My speech and preaching was not in the persuasive words of human wisdom.” The Gloss adds, “even though my words were convincing, their power was not, like those of false Apostles, due to human wisdom.” Hence we are to conclude that religious who preach learnedly, must be false apostles. -

3. St. Paul again, writes: “ For although I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge” (2 Cor. xi. 6). The Gloss remarks upon this passage that the Apostle called himself “rude in speech,” because he did not use flowery language. The commentary further adds, “The words, ‘rude of speech,’ apply not to the Apostles, who were not eloquent, but to the false Apostles who knew how to combine choice phrases. But on account of the accuracy of their language, the Corinthians preferred the impostors to the preachers of the truth. For in religious matters, a power which convinces is needed, not a string of words.” -

4. We read in the Second Book of Esdra (xiv.25): “Their children spoke half in the speech of Azotus... they spoke according to the language of this and that people. And I chided them and laid my curse on them.” The Gloss understands by “ the language of Azotus,” a rhetorical style of speech. Therefore, they who mingle rhetoric or philosophy with the words of Scripture are worthy of excommunication. +

3. St. Paul again, writes: “For although I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge” (2 Cor. xi. 6). The Gloss remarks upon this passage that the Apostle called himself “rude in speech,” because he did not use flowery language. The commentary further adds, “The words, ‘rude of speech,’ apply not to the Apostles, who were not eloquent, but to the false Apostles who knew how to combine choice phrases. But on account of the accuracy of their language, the Corinthians preferred the impostors to the preachers of the truth. For in religious matters, a power which convinces is needed, not a string of words.” +

4. We read in the Second Book of Esdra (xiv.25): “Their children spoke half in the speech of Azotus... they spoke according to the language of this and that people. And I chided them and laid my curse on them.” The Gloss understands by “the language of Azotus,” a rhetorical style of speech. Therefore, they who mingle rhetoric or philosophy with the words of Scripture are worthy of excommunication.

5. Isaiah says (i. 22): “Your wine is mingled with water. Now wine signifies the teaching of Holy Scripture. They, therefore, who mingle with this doctrine the water of human wisdom, are exceedingly reprehensible.

6. On the words of Isaiah (xv. 1): “In the night, Ar of Moab is laid waste,” the Gloss understands by “Ar of Moab,” the “adversary of God, viz., human wisdom, whose walls are built up by means of reasoning, and which in the night is laid waste and put to silence.” From this comparison we may see how much they are to be blamed who, in instruction on sacred subjects, employ earthly wisdom or eloquence.

7. We find in Proverbs vii., the following words: “I have covered my bed with painted tapestry brought from Egypt.” The Gloss comments: “The painted tapestry from Egypt is symbolic of flowery eloquence, or of cunning reasoning, derived from heathen sources. Heresy glories in adorning its pernicious doctrines with language of this description.” Hence we are to understand how criminal a thing it is to use eloquence and earthly learning in expounding the faith. @@ -774,11 +774,11 @@

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9. Our Lord says, (John viii. 54), “If I glorify myself, my glory is nothing.” Hence men who commend themselves, do most convincingly prove their own nothingness.

These are the chief arguments brought in support of the dictum that no one is justified in commending either himself or his order. We shall now proceed to show, from the Old and New Testaments that certain holy men have not hesitated to praise themselves.

1. In the Second Book of Esdras (v. 18), Nehemiah ays, in commendation of his own conduct, “Yet I did not require my yearly allowance as governor; for the people were very much impoverished. Remember me, O my God, for good, according to all that I have done.” -

2. Job says, (xxxi. 1), “I made a covenant with my eyes that I would not so much as think upon a virgin.” Again (xxiv. 14), “ I was clad with justice; and I clothed myself with my judgment as with a robe.” In both the chapters cited, the patriarch says many other things to his own praise. +

2. Job says, (xxxi. 1), “I made a covenant with my eyes that I would not so much as think upon a virgin.” Again (xxiv. 14), “I was clad with justice; and I clothed myself with my judgment as with a robe.” In both the chapters cited, the patriarch says many other things to his own praise.

3. St. Paul says: “I venture not to speak of anything but what Christ has done through me” (Rom. xv.), and again in the same chapter, “From Jerusalem round about, as far as to Illyricum, I have replenished the Gospel of Christ,” -

4. The same Apostle likewise says, “ I have laboured more abundantly than all of them” (1 Cor. xv. 10); and “If any man dare... I dare also” (2 Cor. xxi. 21). In the same epistle he writes many other things to his own commendation. +

4. The same Apostle likewise says, “I have laboured more abundantly than all of them” (1 Cor. xv. 10); and “If any man dare... I dare also” (2 Cor. xxi. 21). In the same epistle he writes many other things to his own commendation.

5. Writing to the Galatians (i. 16), he says, “I did not condescended to flesh and blood.” In this and the following chapter we find many similar utterances. We also see that St. Paul commended his state of life. For (2 Cor. iii. 6) he says: “Who also has made us fit ministers of the New Testament, not in the letter but in the spirit.” In this chapter again, he adds many other expressions in praise of the Apostolic dignity. Hence a religious is justified in extolling his order and in thus attracting others to enter it. -

6. St. Paul commends the perfection of virginity, and exhorts others to this state in which he himself lived, saying: “I would that all men were like myself “ (1 Cor. vii. 7). Hence it is permissible for religious, living in a state of perfection, to commend their mode of life. Self-commendation, therefore, though at times reprehensible, is likewise, on certain occasions, praiseworthy. St. Gregory in, his Homily upon Ezekiel (ix, part I), writes as follows: “Just and perfect men do at times extol their own virtues, and make known the favours which they have received. They are not inspired to act thus by motives of ostentation, but from a desire to draw those to whom they preach to a more perfect life by means of their own example. Thus, St. Paul, in order to divert the attention of the Corinthians from false preachers, tells them how he was rapt to Paradise. When perfect men speak of their own virtues, they imitate Almighty God who extols His own magnificence to men, in order to make Himself known to them.” St. Gregory proceeds to note the circumstances in which men are justified in commending themselves. Then, in the following words, he warns his readers against rash and ill-considered self-praise. “We must remember,” he says, “that perfect men never disclose their own good deeds, unless urged to do so by necessity, or by desire of their neighbour’s profit. Thus St. Paul, after narrating his virtues to the Corinthians, concludes by saying: ‘I have become foolish; you have compelled me.’ At times good men are obliged to speak of themselves, if not for their neighbours’ sake, at least for their own. Thus, holy Job, under the pressure of physical pain, and reproached by his friends for impiety, violence to his neighbour and oppression, was driven to the verge of despair. Then, in self-defence, he called to memory his good deeds, saying: ‘I was an eye to the blind,’ etc. He did not enumerate his virtues from desire of praise, but, merely, to reanimate his confidence in God.” +

6. St. Paul commends the perfection of virginity, and exhorts others to this state in which he himself lived, saying: “I would that all men were like myself “(1 Cor. vii. 7). Hence it is permissible for religious, living in a state of perfection, to commend their mode of life. Self-commendation, therefore, though at times reprehensible, is likewise, on certain occasions, praiseworthy. St. Gregory in, his Homily upon Ezekiel (ix, part I), writes as follows: “Just and perfect men do at times extol their own virtues, and make known the favours which they have received. They are not inspired to act thus by motives of ostentation, but from a desire to draw those to whom they preach to a more perfect life by means of their own example. Thus, St. Paul, in order to divert the attention of the Corinthians from false preachers, tells them how he was rapt to Paradise. When perfect men speak of their own virtues, they imitate Almighty God who extols His own magnificence to men, in order to make Himself known to them.” St. Gregory proceeds to note the circumstances in which men are justified in commending themselves. Then, in the following words, he warns his readers against rash and ill-considered self-praise. “We must remember,” he says, “that perfect men never disclose their own good deeds, unless urged to do so by necessity, or by desire of their neighbour’s profit. Thus St. Paul, after narrating his virtues to the Corinthians, concludes by saying: ‘I have become foolish; you have compelled me.’ At times good men are obliged to speak of themselves, if not for their neighbours’ sake, at least for their own. Thus, holy Job, under the pressure of physical pain, and reproached by his friends for impiety, violence to his neighbour and oppression, was driven to the verge of despair. Then, in self-defence, he called to memory his good deeds, saying: ‘I was an eye to the blind,’ etc. He did not enumerate his virtues from desire of praise, but, merely, to reanimate his confidence in God.”

It is clear then from what has already been said, that men are justified in commending themselves not from motives of vanity, but for the sake of their own spiritual advantage, or that of their neighbour. The most cogent reason which should induce a perfect man to commend his state of perfection, is, the wish to enkindle in others, a desire for the same perfection. Thus, it is permissible for a Christian to commend Christianity to infidels, in order to convert them to the Faith, and in proportion to the sanctity of men, we see them possessed with this zeal for souls. Thus St. Paul said (Acts xxvi. 29), “Little or much, I wish before God that not only you but all who are listening to me today would come to be as I am.”

We now proceed to reply to the objections adduced against religious.

1. The words quoted from the Gloss on Rom. xvi, about those who falsely commend their traditions refer, as we see by the context, to the traditions of false preachers who endeavoured to induce the Gentiles to follow Hebrew customs, and tried by their fluent language to commend these rites to the ignorant heathens. The word “tradition” is not applied to any state of true religion, but to false doctrine and heresy. @@ -792,14 +792,14 @@

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CHAPTER 2

The Charges That Religious Resist Their Detractors

WE will next consider the arguments, whereby, the assailants of religious try to prove that they are not justified in offering any resistance to such as detract them. -

1. The Gloss on the words (1 Cor. xii.), “ No one can say the Lord Jesus,” etc., has the following passage: “ Christians ought to be humble and to bear reproach and not to desire to be flattered.” Therefore, religious who do not endure reproach prove that they are not true Christians. +

1. The Gloss on the words (1 Cor. xii.), “No one can say the Lord Jesus,” etc., has the following passage: “Christians ought to be humble and to bear reproach and not to desire to be flattered.” Therefore, religious who do not endure reproach prove that they are not true Christians.

2. In 2 Cor. xii. 12, St. Paul says: “The signs of my Apostleship have been wrought on you in all patience.” On which text the Gloss observes: “The Apostle makes special mention of patience, as being an essential of virtue.” Hence they who perform the apostolic function of preaching ought to be remarkable for their patience, according to the words of the Psalmist (xci. 15), “They will be very patient, so that they can proclaim” [Vulgate]. They ought to bear with the malice of their detractors and to offer no resistance to it.

3. “Have I then become your enemy, because I tell you the truth?” asks St. Paul (Gal. iv. 16). The comment of the Gloss on this verse is: “The carnal-minded man will not suffer himself to be reproved as though he were in the wrong.” Hence they who will not bear rebuke show that they live according to the flesh. Again, on the words in Phil. iii., “Beware of dogs,” the Gloss says: “Understand that such men are dogs, not because they lack reason, but because they are used to barking at truth to which they are unaccustomed.” Again “as dogs,” says the Gloss, “obey habit rather than reason, so false apostles bark at truth in an irrational manner and rend it.” They therefore who rage against those who reprove them for their vices, hereby prove that they are false Apostles.

4. St. Gregory says, in his Pastorals: “He who is bent upon wrong doing, and desires that others should conceal his sin, shows that he loves himself better than truth. For, he will not suffer truth to be defended at his own cost.” “God is truth” (John xiv.). They, therefore, who will not allow themselves to be corrected, show that they love themselves better than God. They are, consequently, in a state of damnation.

5. What has been already said on the subject is further confirmed by the words of the Book of Proverbs (ix. 8), “Do no rebuke a scorner, lest he hate you. Rebuke a wise man, and he will love you.” It is likewise supported by the following passages from the Old and New Testament.

“He who hates to be reproved, walks in the steps of a sinner” (Sirach xxi. 6). “Bless those who persecute you; bless and curse not” (Rom. xii. 14). “Bless those who curse you; pray for those who calumniate you” (Luke vi. 28). “We are reviled and we bless; we are persecuted and we suffer it” (1 Cor. iv. 12). All the texts which we have cited seem to prove that it is the duty of perfect men, and especially of preachers of the Gospel, not to resist those that speak ill of them.

It can however be shown that at times apostolic men are justified in opposing their calumniators, as we shall now see. -

1. “We do not say,” says St. Paul (Rom. iii. 8), “as we are slandered and as some affirm that we say, let us do evil that there may come good. Their damnation is just.” The commentary of the Gloss on this passage, runs as follows: “ Certain perverse men, who misunderstand us and who are inclined to blame us, assert that this is our teaching. Their damnation is just.” In these words, the Apostle infers that no credit is be given to his detractors; and thus he resists them. +

1. “We do not say,” says St. Paul (Rom. iii. 8), “as we are slandered and as some affirm that we say, let us do evil that there may come good. Their damnation is just.” The commentary of the Gloss on this passage, runs as follows: “Certain perverse men, who misunderstand us and who are inclined to blame us, assert that this is our teaching. Their damnation is just.” In these words, the Apostle infers that no credit is be given to his detractors; and thus he resists them.

2. In his 3rd Epistle (x.), St. John writes: “If I come, I will advertise the works which he does, with malicious words prating against us.” On this verse, the Gloss comments in the following terms. “We ought not, by our own fault, to stir up detraction against ourselves, lest we cause our slanderers to perish. If our enemies, animated by their own malignity, revile us, we ought to endure such treatment patiently, to the increase of our merit. It is right, however, at times to suppress their slanders, lest by propagating evil reports against us they gain the ears and harden the hearts of those who would otherwise have listened to our preaching.”

3. In the following words St. Paul shows (2 Cor. x. 10) that he thought it right to resist those who slandered him. “For his epistles, indeed, say they are weighty and strong, but his bodily presence is weak and his speech is contemptible. Let such a one think this that such as we are in word, by epistles when absent, so also we will be in deed when present.” The Apostle thus treats those who speak ill of him.

4. St. Gregory in his Homily upon Ezekiel (ix. Part 1) says, “They who occupy so conspicuous a position that their lives are regarded as an example for imitation, ought, if they can do so, to silence the detractions propagated against them. For these slanders may reach the ears of those who would otherwise have listened to their preaching. They may cause them to refuse to hear their words, and thus become hardened in their sins.” Now they who practise a life of perfection are regarded by all men as a model for imitation. It is, therefore, their duty to suppress the calumnies set afoot against them. @@ -818,7 +818,7 @@

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Religious Are Condemned for Going to Law

WE will now consider the arguments brought forward to prove that religious ought not to go to law, nor to allow themselves to be defended by force of arms.

1. In the First Epistle to the Corinthians (vi. 7), we find the following passage: “There is plainly a fault among you that you have lawsuits one with another. Why do you not rather take wrong? Why do you not rather suffer yourselves to be defrauded?” On these words, the Gloss observes: “Perfect men should simply to ask for what belongs to them, avoiding contention or legal proceedings.” Hence as religious are in a state of perfection, they ought not to contend with anyone. -

2. our Lord says, (Matt. v. 40): “ If a man will contend with you in judgment and take away your coat, let go your cloak also unto him.” “These three precepts,” remarks the Gloss, “embody the perfection of justice.” Hence religious, who profess to lead a life of perfection, ought not to go to law; they ought rather to suffer themselves to be despoiled of their goods. +

2. our Lord says, (Matt. v. 40): “If a man will contend with you in judgment and take away your coat, let go your cloak also unto him.” “These three precepts,” remarks the Gloss, “embody the perfection of justice.” Hence religious, who profess to lead a life of perfection, ought not to go to law; they ought rather to suffer themselves to be despoiled of their goods.

3. Again, we read, (Luke vi. 29), “Do not stop him who takes away your cloak... If someone takes away your goods, do not ask for them back.” The Gloss says: “This rule respecting our garments applies likewise to our other possessions.” Religious, therefore, who are specially bound to the observance of these precepts, ought neither to prevent others from robbing them, nor to ask for their property to be returned.

4. Our Lord gave the following order to His Apostles: Whoever does not receive you, nor hear your words, go forth from that house or city, shake off the dust from your feet” (Matt. x. 14). The same precept is recorded by Luke (ix. 5). From these words we see that Apostles, and Apostolic and perfect men, ought not to litigate if they are not received into a town, or hamlet or a society.

5. “If any man seem to be contentious, we have no such custom nor the church of God” (1 Cor. xi. 16). They, therefore, who institute legal proceedings depart from the Apostolic rule of perfection. @@ -828,10 +828,10 @@

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On the other hand, we can adduce proofs that holy men are at times justified in availing themselves of the protection of the law.

1. St. Paul, when in danger of being delivered to the Jews, appealed to the hearing of Augustus (Acts xxv) i.e., he appealed to the Roman law. An appeal is to go to a higher judgment. Therefore, perfect men may go to law.

2. We know, by the example of the same saint that it is at times lawful for apostolic men to be defendedby armed force. For in the Acts of the Apostles (xxiii.) we read that St. Paul procured his rescue from the snares of his enemies by means of an army. -

3. We know further that it is permissible for holy men sometimes to defend themselves, especially in the case of an ecclesiastical judgment. For, when Paul and Barnabas were at Antioch, no small contest arose between them and those who taught the brethren that they must be circumcised. Then Paul and Barnabas went up to the Apostles in Jerusalem about this question. St. Paul, alluding to this discussion, speaks of the “ false brethren, smuggled in, who came in privately to spy our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into servitude. We did not submit to them even for a moment” (Gal. ii. 4). Hence religious and perfect men may appeal to an ecclesiastical court in defence of their liberty. +

3. We know further that it is permissible for holy men sometimes to defend themselves, especially in the case of an ecclesiastical judgment. For, when Paul and Barnabas were at Antioch, no small contest arose between them and those who taught the brethren that they must be circumcised. Then Paul and Barnabas went up to the Apostles in Jerusalem about this question. St. Paul, alluding to this discussion, speaks of the “false brethren, smuggled in, who came in privately to spy our liberty which we have in Christ Jesus, that they might bring us into servitude. We did not submit to them even for a moment” (Gal. ii. 4). Hence religious and perfect men may appeal to an ecclesiastical court in defence of their liberty.

4. St. Gregory expressly says (XXXI Moral.) “that religious may defend their property by legal means” On the words of Job (chap. x. 16), “he has laboured in vain,” St. Gregory says: “When the care of our material property imposes upon us the necessity for travelling, we must, if we are despoiled of our possessions, at times endure our loss. At other times we must, while taking every pains to preserve charity, prevent such robbery. We should act thus not only to secure our own property, but, still more to prevent those who would pillage us from losing their souls. Hence in defending our possessions against rapine, our chief care ought to be not so much to guard ourselves against loss, as to save our enemies from committing sin.”

5. St.Gregory likewise commenting on the words of Job (xxiv. 26), “he goeth forward to meet armed men,” says, “we are generally left in peace and quiet if we care not to confront the wicked for the sake of justice. But, if our heart is inflamed with desire for eternal life and our mind is truly enlightened, we shall, as far as circumstances permit or the cause require, throw ourselves into the breach in defence of righteousness. We shall go forth to intercept the wicked in their misdeeds, even though they do not seek us out. For, when unjust men aim their blows at the virtue that we love in others, they wound us also, even though they may seem to venerate our person.” Hence we see that it is the duty of perfect men to defend others who may be attacked, even though they themselves are not provoked. -

6. It is a charitable office to deliver the oppressed from their oppressors. “I broke the jaws of the wicked man, and out of his teeth I took away the prey “ (Job xxix. 17). “Deliver those who are being led to death” (Prov. xxiv. 11). “Rescue the poor, and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner” (Ps. lxxxi. 4). Now we are bound to perform charitable offices, primarily towards those most closely connected with us. Hence, as religious are most closely bound to their religious brethren, they ought in charity to oppose those who oppress their order. By this and by all the preceding arguments, we learn that religious not only may, but ought to resist the violence and artifices of their enemies. +

6. It is a charitable office to deliver the oppressed from their oppressors. “I broke the jaws of the wicked man, and out of his teeth I took away the prey “(Job xxix. 17). “Deliver those who are being led to death” (Prov. xxiv. 11). “Rescue the poor, and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner” (Ps. lxxxi. 4). Now we are bound to perform charitable offices, primarily towards those most closely connected with us. Hence, as religious are most closely bound to their religious brethren, they ought in charity to oppose those who oppress their order. By this and by all the preceding arguments, we learn that religious not only may, but ought to resist the violence and artifices of their enemies.

We must remember that the assailants of religious orders attack them, sometimes in spiritual and sometimes in temporal matters. When religious are oppressed in what concerns their spiritual rights, they ought to resist their oppressors with all their might, especially when the questions involved affect not only themselves, but others. For religious embrace the religious life solely in order to be free to devote themselves to spiritual interests. If their spiritual liberty is curtailed, their object in becoming religious is frustrated. Consequently, as it is a point of perfection for them to carry out their object, it is likewise a point of perfection for them to resist all the obstacles which may be placed in the way of its attainment.

If religious are attacked as to their material interests, perfection demands that so long as their injury be of a private and personal nature, they should bear it patiently, as St. Gregory reminds us, lest by resistance they incite their enemies to violence. If, however, the damage inflicted on them affects not only their own, but the common welfare (even in temporal matters), they ought, as far as possible, to resist their oppressors. It is not perfection but indolence and cowardice to endure such oppression when it might be resisted. For, as we have just said, everyone is bound in charity to defend his neighbour from injury as far as he is able to do so, according to the words of the Book of Proverbs (xxiv. 11): “Deliver those who are being led to death” etc.

We will now proceed to examine the objections brought against our proposition. @@ -847,7 +847,7 @@

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5. Contention is forbidden to all those who are weak in faith. The words of St. Paul (1 Cor. vi.), “Already indeed there is plainly a fault,” are thus explained by the Gloss: “The audacious clamour of contention wars against the truth.” The same explanation is given of the words in the Epistle to the Romans (i. 29), “murder, contention.” Hence they who appeal for justice, without noisy assertion of their claim, are not contentious.

6. It is not true that none can, without a violation of charity, demand the restitution of their goods. What is true is that when avarice leads a man to demand such restitution, he is not acting in charity. On the words, “charity seeks not her own,” the Gloss says: “Charity seeks not her own, for she does not love money.” However, as we have seen from a passage of St. Gregory, already quoted, zeal for fraternal correction may at times stimulate a man to demand the restoration of his property.

7. If a man go to law, he need not necessarily be in discord with his neighbour. Although peace of heart should not be lost for the sake of any earthly gain, it does not follow that it is never permissible to make a legal claim to our property. Peace of mind may be preserved in a law court, as on a battle field. Otherwise, war would be always unlawful. -

8. A man who justly claims the restitution of his goods does not actively give scandal. If scandal is taken at his action, he is merely the passive cause of such scandal. There are two kinds of scandal. There is a Pharisaical scandal, by which men, out of malice, take scandal at their neighbour and cause scandal to him. When our Lord was told that the Pharisees were scandalized at Him, He said: “ Let them alone; they are blind and leaders of the blind” (Matt. xv. 14). There is likewise the scandal taken by weak and ignorant persons. When possible, we must avoid giving this scandal; but we must not do anything wrong out of fear of occasioning it. Now it is wrong to suffer the property of the Church to be pillaged; and, even at the risk of giving scandal, we must resist such injustice. Thus St. Thomas of Canterbury defended the rights of the Church, at the sacrifice of his life, making no account of the scandal taken by the King of England. Even if he could, without sin, have suffered the Church to be robbed, the fear of being a passive cause of scandal, would not have been sufficient cause to justify him in permitting such pillage to take place. It is also possible to obviate giving scandal to weaker brethren by speaking to them gently and pointing out that it is really more to our neighbour’s advantage to check him in a course of injustice than it would be to suffer him, by indulgence, to fall into a habit of dishonesty. Furthermore, a man is more strictly bound to preserve himself from taking scandal than to avoid scandalizing others. Therefore, if he knows that unless he reclaims his own possessions, he will himself be scandalized, it is his duty to demand them. +

8. A man who justly claims the restitution of his goods does not actively give scandal. If scandal is taken at his action, he is merely the passive cause of such scandal. There are two kinds of scandal. There is a Pharisaical scandal, by which men, out of malice, take scandal at their neighbour and cause scandal to him. When our Lord was told that the Pharisees were scandalized at Him, He said: “Let them alone; they are blind and leaders of the blind” (Matt. xv. 14). There is likewise the scandal taken by weak and ignorant persons. When possible, we must avoid giving this scandal; but we must not do anything wrong out of fear of occasioning it. Now it is wrong to suffer the property of the Church to be pillaged; and, even at the risk of giving scandal, we must resist such injustice. Thus St. Thomas of Canterbury defended the rights of the Church, at the sacrifice of his life, making no account of the scandal taken by the King of England. Even if he could, without sin, have suffered the Church to be robbed, the fear of being a passive cause of scandal, would not have been sufficient cause to justify him in permitting such pillage to take place. It is also possible to obviate giving scandal to weaker brethren by speaking to them gently and pointing out that it is really more to our neighbour’s advantage to check him in a course of injustice than it would be to suffer him, by indulgence, to fall into a habit of dishonesty. Furthermore, a man is more strictly bound to preserve himself from taking scandal than to avoid scandalizing others. Therefore, if he knows that unless he reclaims his own possessions, he will himself be scandalized, it is his duty to demand them.

9. Though it be true that food is essential to the preservation of life, this proposition does not apply to every kind of food. A man may abstain from one dish, and live on another. Hence it may be better, for the sake of avoiding scandal, to refrain from one kind of food, rather than to abandon certain temporal possessions. For, by not requiring their restitution, we may, as has been said, occasion sin.

CHAPTER 4 @@ -858,7 +858,7 @@

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3. “To no man rendering evil for evil” (Rom. xii., 17). Again in the same chapter it is written: “Revenge not yourselves, my dearly beloved.” Hence those who cause their adversaries to be punished, act in disobedience to St. Paul.

4. We read in the Legends of Saints Simon and Jude that when the general of the King of Persia wished to punish the heathen priests who had persecuted these Saints, the Apostles cast themselves at his feet and implored the pardon of their enemies. For, they said, they did not wish to be the cause of death to any of those to whom they came to preach salvation. Hence, they who cause their assailants to be punished are not true, but false apostles.

5. “As then he who was born according to the flesh persecuted him that was after the Spirit, so also it is now” (Gal. iv. 29). St. Augustine observes, on this passage: “Who are those who are born according to the flesh?—The lovers of the world. Who are those who are after the Spirit?—The lovers of heaven and of Christ,” They, therefore, who cause others to be perseouted, must, seemingly, be lovers of the world. -

4. “ Let us not be made desirous of vainglory” (Gal. v. 26). The Gloss says that “vain glory is the desire for victory, where no reward is gained.” Now those who wish to see their enemies worsted are desirous of victory. Hence it is by no means permissible for holy men to wish to see persecution arise against their opponents. +

4. “Let us not be made desirous of vainglory” (Gal. v. 26). The Gloss says that “vain glory is the desire for victory, where no reward is gained.” Now those who wish to see their enemies worsted are desirous of victory. Hence it is by no means permissible for holy men to wish to see persecution arise against their opponents.

7. When St, Luke and St. John said to our Lord: “Lord, do you want us to command fire to come down from Heaven and consume them?” He rebuked them, saying, “You do not know of what spirit you are.” They, therefore, who are filled with the Holy Spirit ought no to cause others to be punished.

On the other hand, examples can be adduced, proving that holy men have inflicted chastisement, or caused it to be inflicted.

1. Our Lord “drove the buyers and sellers out of the temple; their money He poured out and their tables He overthrew” (John ii. 14). @@ -867,7 +867,7 @@

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4. In the first Epistle to the Corinthians (v. 3), we read the following words: “I have already judged, as though I were present, him that has done so. In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, you, being gathered together with my spirit, with the power of our Lord Jesus deliver such an person to Satan, for the destruction of his flesh.” The meaning of this, is, says the Gloss, “that Satan may inflict on him bodily torments.” Here, we have another proof of chastisement, inflicted by an Apostle on an evildoer.

5. In the Canticle of Canticles (ii. 15) we read: “Catch us the little foxes.” By which words the Gloss understands, “Pursue and overcome schismatics and heretics.” “For (as another Gloss explains) it will not suffice for us to spend our lives in preaching and setting a good example, unless we correct those that are in error, and preserve the weak from their snares.”

6. Dionysius says (IV De Div. Nom.) “that the angels are not wicked, although they punish wicked men. Now the ecclesiastical hierarchy is modelled on the heavenly. Hence a man may, without any malice, punish evildoers, or procure their punishment. -

7. We read (23 Qaest. cap. Qui potest), “ To neglect to check evil is to encourage it; and he who fails to put down public crime may legitimately be suspected of secret connivance at it.” Hence not only is it lawful to resist and punish offenders, but it is sinful not to do so. +

7. We read (23 Qaest. cap. Qui potest), “To neglect to check evil is to encourage it; and he who fails to put down public crime may legitimately be suspected of secret connivance at it.” Hence not only is it lawful to resist and punish offenders, but it is sinful not to do so.

8. Job (xxxix. 21) says of the horse, by which preachers are typified, “He goes to meet armed men”, because, says the Gloss, “a preacher opposes injustice in defence of the truth, even when this duty is not imposed upon him.” Thus we see that holy preachers must wrestle with impiety, even when impious men do not attack them. But, the Saints act this way not out of hatred, but out of love. Thus, St. Paul, as the Gloss observes, when he delivered, “such a one to Satan for the destruction of the flesh” (1 Cor. V. 3), did so that the Spirit might be saved; whereby we see that his act was inspired not by malice, but by charity. The Gloss further adds: “Elijah and other good men also punished certain sinners by death. By so doing, they inspired the living with a salutary fear, and diminished the number of sins which might have been committed by those whom they condemned to death.” Hence the chastisement inflicted by holy men on sinners cannot strictly be called persecution. For they do not punish them for the sake of making them suffer, but in order either to correct or check them in their sins, or else in order to deliver others from their oppression, or to restrain others from crime by fear of punishment. Sometimes, however, this chastisement may metaphorically be called persecution. Thus, St. Augustine writing to the Count Boniface (23, quaest. 4, cap. Si ecclesia) says “that the persecution inflicted by the wicked on the Church of Christ is unjust, and that inflicted by the Church on sinners is just.”

9. David says (Ps. xvii. 38), “I will pursue after my enemies... till they are consumed.” Again, “The man that detracted his neighbour in private, I persecuted.” (Ps. c. 5).

We will now proceed to answer the arguments used by the enemies of religious, to prove that they are acting unlawfully in causing their persecutors to be punished. @@ -889,7 +889,7 @@

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5. The desire to win human favour is the outcome of self-love; and, as St. Gregory remarks (Pastoral.), “love of self renders a man indifferent to his Creator.” Hence, in so far as a man strives to render himself popular with his fellow-men, he becomes estranged from God.

6. Religious ought to beware of anything savouring of vice; and, as popularity may render a man suspected of vice, as Aristotle says (IV Ethic.), religious ought not to desire to be popular.

These are the chief arguments brought forward by those who seek to prove that religious ought, under no circumstances, to desire to win human favour. It will now be our duty to expose the fallacy which underlies these objections. -

1. St. Paul says (Rom. xv. 2), “ Let every one of you please, his neighbour to good, unto edification.” +

1. St. Paul says (Rom. xv. 2), “Let every one of you please, his neighbour to good, unto edification.”

2. He likewise says, “Be without offence to the Jews and to the Gentiles and to the church of God, as I also in all things please all men” (1 Cor. x. 32).

3. St. Paul likewise says (Rom. xii. 17), “providing good things, not only in the sight of God, but also in sight of all men.” Now this exhortation would be meaningless if it were wrong for men to consider how they may please their neighbours. Therefore, everyone ought to take thought how he may please others.

4. We read in St. Matt (v. 16), “So let your light shine before men that they may see your good works, and may glorify your Father who is in heaven.” Now men will not be moved to glorify God by the sight of good works which do not please them. Hence it is the duty of everyone to take care that his works may be such as will please his neighbour. @@ -897,7 +897,7 @@

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Secondly, we may not displease God in order to please men. This is the interpretation given by St. Jerome to the words in Galatians, “if I should please men,” etc. “If” he says, “we can please both God and men, we must please men. But if we cannot please men without displeasing God, we ought to please God rather than men.”

Thirdly, it happens at times that a man does all that in him lies, and yet he is rashly judged by others. If he does his best, and yet is misjudged by men, he ought to be content that his conscience assures him that he is approved by God, without distressing himself on account of the false judgments of men. The Gloss makes the following comments on the words, “if I should please men” etc. (Gal. i.): “Some men are false judges, backbiter, and fault-finders. They try to cast suspicion on what they do not see, and to asperse deeds on which no suspicion has alighted. Against such as these, the testimony of our own conscience is our best defence.”

We shall have no difficulty in refuting the remaining objections. -

1 and 2. “ God has scattered the bones of those who please men,” is to be understood, as applying to those who make the favour of men the chief object of their ambition, and who, in order to please mortals, are ready to offend God. The words of Gal. i., “If I should please men,” are to be understood in the same sense. +

1 and 2. “God has scattered the bones of those who please men,” is to be understood, as applying to those who make the favour of men the chief object of their ambition, and who, in order to please mortals, are ready to offend God. The words of Gal. i., “If I should please men,” are to be understood in the same sense.

3. Although preachers of the truth may be hated by sinners who are unwilling to amend their lives, they gain the favour of those who desire instruction. “Rebuke a wise man and he will love you” (Prov. ix 8).

4. The words of St. Gregory, quoted as an objection to our proposition, refer to those who make it their sole ambition to find favour with men, and who desire to be loved with a love due to God alone, even though they do not commit any overt offence against Him. That this is the sense of the passage is clearly shown by its context, which runs as follows: “He is an enemy to our Redeemer, who desires, for the sake of his good works, to be loved by the Church.”

5. The words of St. Gregory, quoted in the fifth objection, are to be understood, as referring to that inordinate self love which causes men to seek, merely for their own sake, to please their neighbour. @@ -911,9 +911,9 @@

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3. The degree in which men glory in anything, is proportionate to the joy they take in it. Now man should not glory in his possessions. “Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, and let not the strong man glory in his strength, and let not the rich man glory in his riches” (Jer. ix. 23). From this text we learn likewise that no man should glory in the good effected by him. Our adversaries strive from it to prove that religious have no right to glory in the great works which God accomplishes by means of them.

1. The fallacy of this argument is shown by the words which we read in the Acts of the Apostles (ii. 22). We are told that at the preaching of some of the faithful, “a great number, believing, were converted to the Lord. And the tidings came to the ears of the Church that was at Jerusalem touching these things; and they sent Barnabas as far as Antioch. When he came saw the grace of God, he rejoiced.” Here, we see how the Apostles were filled with joy, at the good work done in the Church, by their brethren and fellow-labourers.

2. We, further, read (Acts xv. 3) that “Paul and Barnabas being brought on their way by the Church, passed through Phenice and Samaria, relating the conversion of the Gentiles; and they caused great joy to all the brethren.” -

3. St. Paul again addresses the Philippians (iv. 1): “ Dearly beloved brethren, and most desired, my joy, and my crown.” He evidently and openly rejoiced in those whom he had converted to Christ. Why then may not religious and other men rejoice at the great works which God effects by, their means, and especially at the conversion of others? +

3. St. Paul again addresses the Philippians (iv. 1): “Dearly beloved brethren, and most desired, my joy, and my crown.” He evidently and openly rejoiced in those whom he had converted to Christ. Why then may not religious and other men rejoice at the great works which God effects by, their means, and especially at the conversion of others?

4. We return thanks only for what we consider to be a favour granted to us. Now no one receives a favour without rejoicing at it. If then it is not permissible to rejoice at great deeds which God does by means of us, we have no reason to thank Him for them. This proposition is, of course, absurd. -

5. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “No one is just who does not rejoice at works of justice.” This sentiment agrees with the verse of the Psalm (xcix. 2): “ Serve the Lord with gladness.” No work of the Lord is so magnificent as is the work of justice, whereby He is served, Therefore, holy men ought to rejoice that God effects this great work by their instrumentality. +

5. Aristotle says (I Ethic.): “No one is just who does not rejoice at works of justice.” This sentiment agrees with the verse of the Psalm (xcix. 2): “Serve the Lord with gladness.” No work of the Lord is so magnificent as is the work of justice, whereby He is served, Therefore, holy men ought to rejoice that God effects this great work by their instrumentality.

We must bear in mind that joy appertains only to what is good, and that it ought to be proportioned to the degree of goodness existent in the things at which we rejoice. Hence we ought to find our greatest joy in the highest good. We may rejoice in other things, but we ought not to find perfect joy in them. This is to be sought for only in the highest good. Now he who rejoices at the good which God effects by his means rejoices rightly, if he places his joy in God, i.e., if he rejoices because the good wrought through his instrumentality tends to the glory of God, and to his own and his neighbour’s salvation. But if he rejoices in any other spirit, he rejoices in his own works and commits sin. Hence St. Gregory, explaining the words of Job already quoted, says (22 Moral.): “At times holy men rejoice on account of the good repute in which they are held. But as they only desire to be esteemed for the sake of doing more good amongst those to whom they preach, they rejoice when they are thought well of, not for the sake of their own honour, but for the profit of others. It is one thing to seek human favour, and another to rejoice at the improvement which we effect in our neighbour?’

The remaining objections will easily be answered.

1. The words, “rejoice not in this, that spirits are subject to you” (Luke x. 20), are to be understood as an order to the Apostles to rejoice, not on account of their victory over evil spirits, but on account of the glory of God. The Gloss says: “They are forbidden to rejoice at the abasement of the devil, who fell through pride; they are rather to exult at the honour given to God.” Or else we may understand that the Apostles were commanded not to rejoice at the fall of Satan as if that were the highest good. For he might have been overcome without any merit on their part. Their chief joy was to be, as our Lord told them, that their names were “written in Heaven: (Luke x. 20). @@ -941,7 +941,7 @@

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PROLOGUE

The Enemies of Religious Seek, in Every Way, to Defame Them

WE have hitherto spoken of the false judgments passed by the enemies of religious about things. We will next consider the falsehoods uttered by them about persons. -

It may perhaps appear that detraction uttered against persons ought to be borne by them without refutation. St. Gregory says, “ The blame of wicked men is a testimony to the innocence of our life. For if we are offensive to those who displease God, it is a proof that our life must be upright” (IX Homil. part 1, super Ezech.). Again, we read (John xv. 18), “If the world hates you, know that it has first hated Me.” St. Paul likewise teaches us that the judgments of men are to be lightly esteemed, saying (1 Cor. iv. 3): “To me it is a very small thing to be judged by you, or by man’s day.” We can especially afford to despise human opinion when we have the testimony of a good conscience, and when we can say with Job: “My witness is in heaven” (xvi. 20). +

It may perhaps appear that detraction uttered against persons ought to be borne by them without refutation. St. Gregory says, “The blame of wicked men is a testimony to the innocence of our life. For if we are offensive to those who displease God, it is a proof that our life must be upright” (IX Homil. part 1, super Ezech.). Again, we read (John xv. 18), “If the world hates you, know that it has first hated Me.” St. Paul likewise teaches us that the judgments of men are to be lightly esteemed, saying (1 Cor. iv. 3): “To me it is a very small thing to be judged by you, or by man’s day.” We can especially afford to despise human opinion when we have the testimony of a good conscience, and when we can say with Job: “My witness is in heaven” (xvi. 20).

On further consideration, we shall, however, see that it is more prudent for religious to silence the tongues of their detractors. This is evident for three reasons:

1. First, when religious are defames, it is not the reputation of one man, or even of two or three that suffers. The calumny affects the whole body of religious. Hence their defamers ought to be manfully resisted, or else the whole flock of Christ may be torn by the teeth of wolves. Our Lord says: “The hireling sees the wolf coming, and leaves the sheep and flees” (John x. 12). The Gloss remarks that by the “wolf,” is meant either, “they who ravage the Church by violence, or the devil who, spiritually, scatters the faithful.” The cowardly pastors whom Christ calls hirelings, are thus reproved by Ezekiel (xiii. 5): “You have not gone up to face the enemy, nor have you set up a wall for the house of Israel.”

2.”Religious ought to resist their detractors, because they not only require a good conscience for their own sake, they likewise need fair reputation in order to carry weight with those to whom they preach. The Gloss, speaking of detraction, says on the words of St. Paul (Gal. iv.), “Cast out the handmaid,” etc., “All who seek for earthly happiness in the Church, belong still to Ishmael. These are they who wage war against spiritual men and defame them, and whose lips utter evil things, and whose tongues are full of guile.” Therefore religious ought to resist those who thus detract them. St. Gregory likewise observes, in the homily already quoted: “They who occupy a position in which they are looked up to as an example, ought, if possible, to silence the voice of their detractors, lest the faithful, believing these calumnies, refuse to listen to preaching and become hardened in a sinful life.” St. John, writing to Gaius (Ep. iii), says of Diotrephes: “If I come, I will advertise the works which he does with malicious words prating against us.” And St. Paul writes in like manner (2 Cor. x, 10), “His epistles, indeed, they say they weighty and strong, but his bodily presence is weak, and his speech is contemptible.” @@ -953,7 +953,7 @@

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Now any evil which may exist among religious can be exaggerated in three ways.

Firstly, in order of time. Thus, a crime committed by a religious before his conversion may be recalled to the public mind, in order to put him to shame. The words, “Men shall be lovers of themselves” (2 Tim. iii.) are applied to religious. They are accused of coming from a life of crime into a religious order, which their enemies call “creeping into houses.” St. Gregory exposes the falsity of this accusation. Commenting on the words, “Iron is taken out of the earth” (Job xxviii.), he says (18 Moral.): “Iron shall be taken out of the earth when the champion of the Church is delivered from the earthly bonds that have held him captive.” A man ought not to be despised for what he formerly was, after he has begun to lead a new life. St. Paul, after enumerating the vices of the Corinthians, concludes by saying (1 Cor. vi. 11): “Such some of you were, but you are washed, you are sanctified, you are justified.” Hence the interpretation given by the opponents of religious to the text is contrary to the meaning of St. Paul. For the Apostle did not intend to say that those to whom he wrote had led sinful lives, and afterwards begun to creep into houses. Creeping into houses is one of the vices for which he rebukes them.

Secondly, if any evil prevails among religious, their enemies exaggerate it with regard to persons. Thus the faults committed by two or three individuals are attributed to all religious. Thus it may be said that in certain cases some men are not content with the food set before them, but seek better living elsewhere. Even should this accusation is occasionally true of certain individuals, that is no reason why it should be levelled at all religious in general. Hence St. Augustine, writing to Vincent the Donatist, says (23 Quaest. VI, cap. Quicumque): “If any man, not justly, but avariciously, retains the goods of the poor which you held in the name of the Church, the fact is displeasing to us. You, however, will have some difficulty in proving it. We bear with some men whom we are not able to correct or to punish. We cannot forsake the granary of the Lord on account of the chaff contained therein; nor can we break His nets, because of the worthless fish that they have caught.” For the fact that certain men among religious commit crimes is no reason for defaming the whole religious body. Otherwise, the treachery of Judas ought to have been attributed to the whole College of the Apostles on account of the words, “Have not I chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil?” (John vi. 71). St. Gregory, commenting on the words of Cant. (ii. 2), “As a lily among thorns, so is my beloved among the daughters,” says: “There cannot be bad men without good, nor good without bad.” Of the bad we may use the words of St. John (1 Epist. ii. 19): “They went out from us; but they were not of us.” -

Thirdly, the enemies of religious exaggerate the degree of any evil that may prevail among them. Thus, the venial offences of religious are represented to the world as heinous crimes. St. John tells us that no one can live in the world without sin. “If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves “ (1 John, i. 8). But the men of whom we have been speaking magnify the slight faults observable even in the perfect, and speak of them as though they were serious crimes. Thereby they disobey the exhortation of the Book of Proverbs (xxiv. 15): “ Lie not in wait, nor seek after wickedness in the house of the just,” They call religious false apostles, because they say that they seek hospitality the houses of the wealthy, where they will be best fed; because they assist others in their affairs in order to be entertained by them; because they accept material assistance from those to whom they preach; and on other grounds of the like nature. Now though such actions be faulty, they cannot be called grave crimes, nor ought those guilty of them to be on that account named sinners or false apostles. The Gloss, commenting on the verse in Gal. ii., “We, by nature, are Jews and not of the Gentiles, sinners,” This epithet (i.e. sinner), is not used in the Scriptures of those who, although they live upright and praiseworthy lives, are not wholly free from sin.” This observation applies to those who see the mote in their brother’s eye, but not the beam in their own (Matt. iii. 3). The Gloss further remarks that “many, laden with grave sins, are so filled with envy, hatred and malice that they would rather blame and condemn their neighbour for his lesser offences, than strive to correct him.” In short, those who venomously attack religious for small faults, and remain unconscious of their own serious defects, are precisely those of whom our Lord said that they strain a gnat and swallow a camel (Mat. xxxiii. 24). +

Thirdly, the enemies of religious exaggerate the degree of any evil that may prevail among them. Thus, the venial offences of religious are represented to the world as heinous crimes. St. John tells us that no one can live in the world without sin. “If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves “(1 John, i. 8). But the men of whom we have been speaking magnify the slight faults observable even in the perfect, and speak of them as though they were serious crimes. Thereby they disobey the exhortation of the Book of Proverbs (xxiv. 15): “Lie not in wait, nor seek after wickedness in the house of the just,” They call religious false apostles, because they say that they seek hospitality the houses of the wealthy, where they will be best fed; because they assist others in their affairs in order to be entertained by them; because they accept material assistance from those to whom they preach; and on other grounds of the like nature. Now though such actions be faulty, they cannot be called grave crimes, nor ought those guilty of them to be on that account named sinners or false apostles. The Gloss, commenting on the verse in Gal. ii., “We, by nature, are Jews and not of the Gentiles, sinners,” This epithet (i.e. sinner), is not used in the Scriptures of those who, although they live upright and praiseworthy lives, are not wholly free from sin.” This observation applies to those who see the mote in their brother’s eye, but not the beam in their own (Matt. iii. 3). The Gloss further remarks that “many, laden with grave sins, are so filled with envy, hatred and malice that they would rather blame and condemn their neighbour for his lesser offences, than strive to correct him.” In short, those who venomously attack religious for small faults, and remain unconscious of their own serious defects, are precisely those of whom our Lord said that they strain a gnat and swallow a camel (Mat. xxxiii. 24).

CHAPTER 2

The Enemies of Religious Spread Abroad Against Them Reports of Which the Truth is Doubtful, for Instance, They Accuse Religious of Seeking Popularity and of Desiring to Gain Glory for Themselves, Instead of Labouring for the Glory of God @@ -990,13 +990,13 @@

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2. Certain men were condemned in the early days of the Church for teaching, as men teach now, that the coming of the Lord was imminent. We have this on the authority of St. Jerome (De illustr. viris), and of Eusebius, (Ecclesiast. Histor.). No period, either long or short, can be determined, in which is to be expected the end of the world, or the coming of Christ or of Antichrist. It is for this reason that we are told that “the day of the Lord shall come as a thief” (1 Thes. v. 2), and that as “in the days of Noah they knew not till the flood came and took them all away, so also shall the coming of the Son of man be” (Matt. xxiv). St. Augustine, in his Epistle to Hesychius, speaks of three classes of men who made assertions respecting the coming of our Lord. One class expects Him soon; another later; and the third declares its ignorance of the time of His coming. This last opinion meets with the approbation of St. Augustine, and he censures the presumption of the others.

Those who say that the second advent is at hand, try to establish the following argument. The last age begins with the coming of Christ. Foregoing ages have not lasted longer than a thousand years. As then much more than a thousand years have elapsed since the coming of Christ, His second coming must be shortly expected. This argument is answered by St. Augustine (83 Quaest. LX) as follows: “Age is supposed to include a time equal to the aggregate of all the periods that have elapsed.” He compares this latter time to old age. Then he concludes by saying: “It is thus uncertain by what generations the final period of time, which begins with the coming of our Lord and is to end with the end of the world, is to be counted.” God has chosen, for some wise purpose, to keep this hidden. So it is written in the Gospel. St. Paul also declares that “the day of the Lord is to come like a thief in the night.”

3. Those who believe in the speedy coming of Antichrist, say that his appearance is heralded by eight signs. -

(1) They quote the words of Daniel (vii. 25) concerning Antichrist: “He shall think himself able to change times.” That is to say, according to the Gloss, “ His pride is so excessive that he strives to alter laws and ceremonies.” On account of these words the days of Antichrist are said to be at hand, because certain men try to alter the Gospel of Christ into another gospel, which they call “eternal.” The Gospel of which they speak is a certain Introduction to the books of Joachim, which is condemned by the Church. Or else it is the doctrine of Joachim, whereby they say the Gospel of Christ is altered. But granted that this hypothesis were true, it would be no token of the approach of Antichrist. For even in the days of the Apostles, certain men tried to alter the Gospel of Christ. Thus St. Paul says (Gal. i. 6): “I wonder that you are soon removed from him who called you into the grace of Christ, to another Gospel.” +

(1) They quote the words of Daniel (vii. 25) concerning Antichrist: “He shall think himself able to change times.” That is to say, according to the Gloss, “His pride is so excessive that he strives to alter laws and ceremonies.” On account of these words the days of Antichrist are said to be at hand, because certain men try to alter the Gospel of Christ into another gospel, which they call “eternal.” The Gospel of which they speak is a certain Introduction to the books of Joachim, which is condemned by the Church. Or else it is the doctrine of Joachim, whereby they say the Gospel of Christ is altered. But granted that this hypothesis were true, it would be no token of the approach of Antichrist. For even in the days of the Apostles, certain men tried to alter the Gospel of Christ. Thus St. Paul says (Gal. i. 6): “I wonder that you are soon removed from him who called you into the grace of Christ, to another Gospel.”

(2) The second sign of the coming of Antichrist is supposed to be found in the words of the Psalmist (ix. 21): “Appoint, O Lord, a lawgiver over them.” This the Gloss interprets to mean “the Antichrist, the giver of an evil law.” As the doctrine which we have already mentioned, which they call the law of Antichrist, was promulgated at Paris, it is thought to be a sign that Antichrist is at hand. But it is not true to say that the doctrine of Joachim, or that which is contained in the Introduction to the Gospel of Joachim, however reprehensible it may be, is the doctrine which will be preached by Antichrist. For Antichrist will proclaim himself to be God. St. Paul says expressly (2 Thes. ii. 4), “So that he sits in the temple of God, showing himself as if he were God.” For if, by the teaching of Antichrist, all false doctrine is to be understood, just as all heretics are called Antichrists; then, the alleged proof of the speedy coming of Antichrist is no proof at all. For from the earliest days of the Church there has never been a time in which heretical teaching has not been disseminated. “Even now there are many Antichrists” (1 John ii. 18). On these words, the Gloss remarks: “All heretics are Antichrists.”

(3) The third supposed sign of the coming of Antichrist is found in the Book of Daniel (v) and in Isaiah (xxi). We read there the account of the hand that wrote Mane, Thecel, Phares on the wall of Babylon. Those who believe that Antichrist is at hand, maintain that the same prediction which formerly was written up in Babylon is now written in the Church. Mane was interpreted to mean, “God has numbered your Kingdom and has finished it”; and the Kingdom of Christ is now numbered, for it has been foretold that it its to endure a thousand two hundred and seventy years. Thecel signified, “You art weighed in the balance and found wanting”; and the “Eternal Gospel” is preferred to the Gospel of Christ. Phares meant your Kingdom is divided, and is given to the Medes and Persians”; and the Kingdom of the Church is now finished and given to others. Thus, the writing on the wall signified both the destruction of the Church and the ruin of Babylon.

This, however, seems a very foolish idea. St. Augustine tells us (18 de Civ. Dei) that certain men said that Christianity was to last for three hundred and sixty-five years, and that at the end of that time it was to cease to exist. Thus, it is no new thing to assign a limit for the duration of Christianity, since this was done even before the time of Augustine. Hence this is no reason for believing Antichrist to be at hand. St. Augustine says likewise (ibid.) that in his time some men estimated that four hundred years, others that five hundred, were to elapse between the Ascension of Christ and His second coming. Others, again, reckoned that this period was to embrace a thousand years. But the words of our Lord, “It is not yours to know the times or the moments” etc. (Acts i. 7), expose the folly of all such suppositions. St. Augustine, furthermore, blames the kind of arguments used in such conjectures. He compares them to the hypothesis of some that as there were ten plagues of Egypt, so there were to be ten persecutions of the Church. He says that such opinions are mere human conjectures, established on no foundation of truth. Those who interpret the handwriting on the wall as prophetic of the speedy coming of Antichrist, show their agreement with the Scripture that they reprobate; because, like the Scripture, they say that the beloved Babylon is soon to be destroyed. But there is no real similitude. For the handwriting in Babylon was divinely displayed, and it was therefore a proof of the truth; but the writing, of which these would-be prophets speak, is a figment of error, on which no argument can be founded.

They take their other five signs from the signs of which our Lord speaks in the Gospel of St. Matthew as portents of His coming.

(4) The fourth sign is taken from the words recorded in the Gospel of St. Matthew (xxiv. 29): “Then shall they put you to death, and you shall be hated by all nations for my name’s sake.” This sign is said to be now fulfilled. For, as men will not endure correction, they persecute those holy ones who reprove them, by hatred, by manifold tribulations, and even by death. But, this is no argument at all. For this sort of persecution befell the Apostles and the martyrs, as our Lord foretold. Hence the fact that the Church suffers persecution at present, is no more proof that the second advent is at hand than it was in the Apostolic age. -

(5) The fifth sign is taken from the following words: “Then shall many be scandalised.” This prediction is supposed to be fulfilled, because religious are calumniated and men take scandal at that. But this interpretation of the text is opposed to that of the Gloss which says: “Men shall be scandalised, i.e., they shall fall from the faith, through fear of the greatness of the torments inflicted on believers.” Thus this prediction was fulfilled at the time of the martyrs. It is nothing new for holy men to be spoken ill of by the impious. Even the Apostles were told (Matt. v. 11): “ Blessed are you when men revile you, and speak all that is evil against you untruly.” We also read in ecclesiastical history how tyrants caused faithful Christians to be accused of the blackest crimes. +

(5) The fifth sign is taken from the following words: “Then shall many be scandalised.” This prediction is supposed to be fulfilled, because religious are calumniated and men take scandal at that. But this interpretation of the text is opposed to that of the Gloss which says: “Men shall be scandalised, i.e., they shall fall from the faith, through fear of the greatness of the torments inflicted on believers.” Thus this prediction was fulfilled at the time of the martyrs. It is nothing new for holy men to be spoken ill of by the impious. Even the Apostles were told (Matt. v. 11): “Blessed are you when men revile you, and speak all that is evil against you untruly.” We also read in ecclesiastical history how tyrants caused faithful Christians to be accused of the blackest crimes.

(6) The sixth sign is taken from the words: “Many false prophets shall arise and shall seduce many.” We are told that this sign is now manifested, because certain religious appear who are called false prophets, because they commend themselves and for other reasons of the same kind. But this interpretation will be seen to be erroneous if we compare it with the Gloss on the passage in the Gospel of St. Mark (xiii), where false prophets are understood to mean heretics, or those who, after the Passion of our Lord and before the destruction of Jerusalem, seduced the Jewish nation. We have also already spoken at length on the subject of false prophets.

(7) The seventh sign is taken from the words: “Because iniquity has abounded, the charity of many shall grow cold.” It is maintained that we now see the accomplishment of this prediction; inasmuch as those who seem to be the most zealous defenders of the Church, forsake the Gospel of Christ, and adhere to the “Eternal Gospel”, whereby they show that the love which they owe to Christ has grown cold. But this statement is untrue. For those about whom it is made have not abandoned the Gospel of Christ, and do not profess to believe in any other Gospel. But, granted that the accusation were true, there have been in all ages men in the Church who appeared perfect, and yet originated heresies. We may mention Pelagius, Nestorius, and Eutyches. There have also been many others of the same description. But they did not, therefore, prove that their charity had grown cold. For, although they did not follow the teaching of the Gospel, they did not persecute it. There is no need of persecution, where there is no defender of the truth. Such a persecution would revive extinct errors; and, under pretext of refuting them, would teach them to the people; and this is the greatest of dangers. Hence St. Gregory says (14 Moral.) that after Eutyches had died leaving no followers, he would not labour to exterminate his errors, lest he should again fan them into flame.

(8) The eighth sign is taken from the words: This gospel of ‘the Kingdom, shall be preached in the whole world.” These words are said to be fulfilled in themselves, because they proclaim the signs and dangers which they wish all men to avoid, according to the words of St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 2): “Preach the word, be instant in season, out of season.” We are told that those who do not preach these signs are false apostles, who have not, like the animals mentioned in the fourth chapter of the Apocalypse, “eyes before and behind,” to know both the future and the past. But this sign is worth nothing. Even in the early ages of the Church, there were, as ecclesiastical history relates, many who proclaimed similar prophecies, and who were on this account reproved by other Catholics of weight. The Gloss on the words, “Many shall come in my name” (Mark xiii) says: “Many, at a time when ruin was imminent, came, proclaiming themselves to be Christs and falsely declaring that freedom was at hand. And many in the Church, even in the Apostolic ages, threatened the faithful with the speedy coming of the Lord.” Hence they who foretell these signs are not numbered among those who proclaim the Gospel, but among those who seduce many. Consequently, when our Lord said, “this Gospel of the Kingdom shall be preached,” He referred not to the preaching of these vain signs, but to the teaching of the Christian faith which, before His second advent, will be disseminated throughout the whole world. Hence as St. Augustine proves, in his letter to Hesychius, the day of the Lord could not in his time be at hand, since there still existed nations to which the Gospel had not, as yet, been preached. Those who proclaim this sign, themselves fall into the snare which they have prepared for others. For they call a certain new doctrine, “the Gospel of the Kingdom,” and affirm themselves to be the signs which announce the Gospel of the Kingdom. St. Augustine sums up the folly and worthlessness of these five last signs, in the following words: “Perchance, if we diligently compare and examine all that the three Evangelists have said of the coming of Christ, we shall find that it points to His daily advent in His body the Church, of which coming He said: ‘A little while and you shall see the Son of man coming, or sitting’.” (Epist. ad Hesych.). @@ -1005,13 +1005,13 @@

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The Opponents of Religious Life Strive to Prove That Religious Are Antichrists

As the enemies of religious speak much about the dangers which will befall the Church in her latter days, by the instrumentality of those whom they call the emissaries of Antichrist, we will now examine what means they use in order to ascertain who these emissaries of Antichrist will be. They assert that these seducers will be neither barbarians, nor Jews, nor Gentiles. But this opinion is contrary to the prophecy of the Apocalypse: “Satan... shall seduce the nations which are over the four quarters of the Earth, Gog and Magog” (Rev. xx. 7). On these words, the Gloss says: “Satan will first seduce these two nations; he will then proceed to deceive others.” Or, according to another interpretation, by Magog is understood all persecutors who proceeded, at first by secret, and afterwards, by open persecution. Hence barbarians are not excluded from the persecution of Antichrist, as they would persuade us.

But those who affirm that the emissaries of Antichrist will be neither Jews, nor Gentiles, are of opinion that they will be Christians, on account of the words of St. Paul: “Having an appearance indeed of godliness” (2 Tim. iii. 5), i.e., as the Gloss explains, “of the Christian religion.” They hold that the words of the Apostle apply to those by whose instrumentality evil is to befall the Church in the latter days. But, in this assumption they make a great mistake. For St. Paul did not mean that the same men would be guilty of all the vices which he enumerates, but that some of his words would apply to some men, and that other parts of his reproof would be true of other persons. Hence it is not necessary that all those who are likely to endanger the Church should present an appearance of piety. It is merely implied that some of them will do so. In like manner, the early Church suffered persecution from believers and unbelievers alike. “In perils from the Gentiles... in perils from false brethren” (2 Cor. xi. 26). -

The emissaries of Antichrist, we are next told, will not be found among the manifestly wicked. This opinion is, however, clearly opposed to the 82nd Psalm. The Gloss explains that the whole of that Psalm treats of the persecution of Antichrist. It adds that among his other emissaries, the “ Philistines “ signify those who are drunk with worldly luxury. St. Gregory likewise (20 Moral.), expounding the words of Job xxx., “Now I am turned into their song,” says: “These are the words of the Church in her latter days, when oppressed by her enemies.” Job says in the same chapter: “The strength of whose hands was to me as nothing, and they were thought unworthy of life.” St. Gregory interprets the passages which follow of those who led manifestly evil and carnal lives. +

The emissaries of Antichrist, we are next told, will not be found among the manifestly wicked. This opinion is, however, clearly opposed to the 82nd Psalm. The Gloss explains that the whole of that Psalm treats of the persecution of Antichrist. It adds that among his other emissaries, the “Philistines “signify those who are drunk with worldly luxury. St. Gregory likewise (20 Moral.), expounding the words of Job xxx., “Now I am turned into their song,” says: “These are the words of the Church in her latter days, when oppressed by her enemies.” Job says in the same chapter: “The strength of whose hands was to me as nothing, and they were thought unworthy of life.” St. Gregory interprets the passages which follow of those who led manifestly evil and carnal lives.

It is maintained that the ministers of Antichrist will be found among those who seem to be good men. The proof of this assertion is supposed to exist in the words of Our Lord: “Take heed of false prophets” (Mat. vii. 14) and by other texts of the same nature. But, although some of the emissaries of Antichrist may wear an appearance of piety, it is not necessary that they shall all seem godly. Christians of the early Church were persecuted both by the impious and by the apparently pious.

The argument that no one can lead another astray unless he wear an appearance of virtue is untrue. For many more are misled by the pleasures of this world and by fear of its sufferings, than by any seeming godliness.

We are further told that the ministers of Satan will be found among those who devote themselves to study. The proof of this opinion is said to lie in the words of St. Paul, “ever learning and never coming to a knowledge of the truth” (2 Tim. iii, 7). The inapplicability of this passage to the point in question is shown by the fact that St. Paul was referring not to men who seduce others, but to silly women who suffer themselves to be led astray. Granted, however that the words apply to men who mislead others, they can only refer to those who, in their studies, depart from the way of truth. Hence the text is often interpreted of heretics. Those who hold a contrary opinion, however, quote in support of it the following words of St. Gregory (13 Moral.) on Job xvi.: “My enemy has looked at me with terrible eyes.” “The incarnate Truth,” says St. Gregory, “chose for His preachers poor and simple men. But Antichrist will send as his Apostles men who are cunning and double-tongued and imbued with the wisdom of the world.”

St. Gregory explains in another passage, who will be the learned men whom Antichrist will send. Commenting on the words of Isaiah (xviii. 2), “who sends ambassadors upon the sea, and in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters,” St. Gregory says: “He sends his ambassadors upon the sea, for he scatters his preachers throughout the world. The ‘vessels of bulrushes’ signify the hearts of those who are wise in this world’s wisdom. Hence he who sends ambassadors in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters makes his preachers depend upon the wisdom of the world, and lead their vacillating hearers into sin.” Therefore, the true preachers of Antichrist are learned men, who lead worldly lives and attract men to vice. But even if Antichrist were going to ruin the Church by means of learned men, it would not be by their agency alone.

We are further told that the envoys of Antichrist will be found among those learned men whose opinion is esteemed as peculiarly weighty and valuable. “As if a man should consult God,” it is said of Ahitophel (2 Sam xvi.). The seducers who will appear in the latter days of the Church are supposed to be typified by Ahitophel. For, as Ahitophel adhered first to David, and then to Absalom, so they will take part first with Christ, and then with Antichrist. St. Paul says of them, first that they will have an appearance of godliness, and then that they will be “men corrupted in mind, reprobate concerning the faith” (2 Tim iii. 5). Stress is also laid on the words, “they came forth from us” (1 John ii. 19), which means, as the Gloss says, “they shared with us in the Sacraments.” But this quotation is no argument. For St. Paul does not say of the men to whom he refers that at first they wore an appearance of piety, and that then, laying it aside, they became infidels. What he means is that while these men had a superficial semblance of godliness, they were at the same time infidels at heart. There are many heretics who agree with the Church about the Sacraments; and there are some who receive the Sacraments, at least exteriorly. Even if, on this account, they are typified by Ahitophel, that would not make it necessary for them to resemble Ahitophel in the astuteness of his counsels. This comparison is purely a figment of the imagination; just as the correspondence between the plagues of Egypt and the persecutions of the Church, is imaginary. -

It is likewise maintained that the Apostles of Antichrist will be found among those who have vowed to obey the counsels. The ground for this opinion is supposed to exist in the following passage of St. Gregory. Commenting on the words of Job (xxx) “at the right hand of my rising,” St. Gregory says: “Calamities shall arise at the right hand of my rising. For those who were believed to be chosen members of Christ now come forward to persecute the Church.” These words do not, however, apply, in any special manner, to those who are under an obligation to keep the counsels; for, by the right hand, or the chosen members of Christ, all good men are signified. This we know by the following passage of St. Gregory (ibid.): “All the faithful of Holy Church are spoken of under the name of the right hand.” Even, however, though perfect men be understood by the expression “ right hand,” this is no proof that the passage we have quoted is especially applicable to religious. For men may be perfect in the order of charity, even though they be married. Prelates, in like manner, are in state of perfection. Hence it is not only religious who are meant by the chosen members of Christ. The fallacy contained in this argument makes it easy for us to see what underlies the ensuing one. The enemies of religious assert that religious are the future emissaries of Antichrist, on account of the words: “It will come to pass that Herod will seek the child to destroy, him” (Matt. ii. 13). The Gloss comments on this passage thus: “As soon as Christ came into the world, persecution arose against Him—a type of the future persecution of the Saints.” From this it is argued that, as at the coming of our Lord He was opposed by those who seemed to be the most wise and holy among men, (i.e. the Scribes and Pharisees), so at the end of the world, the faithful of Christ will be attacked by those who will seem to be the best and wisest, viz., by leaxned and religious men. This argument, however, carries no weight. For, not only the Scribes and Pharisees, but the High priests, Annas and Caiphas, and the civil rulers, Herod and Pilate, persecuted our Lord. Neither were all those who persecuted Him Scribes; for some were only Pharisees. Hence this argument does not prove that the future persecutors of the Church are to be learned rather than illiterate religious, or religious rather than bishops, or religious rather than secular sovereigns and dignitaries. +

It is likewise maintained that the Apostles of Antichrist will be found among those who have vowed to obey the counsels. The ground for this opinion is supposed to exist in the following passage of St. Gregory. Commenting on the words of Job (xxx) “at the right hand of my rising,” St. Gregory says: “Calamities shall arise at the right hand of my rising. For those who were believed to be chosen members of Christ now come forward to persecute the Church.” These words do not, however, apply, in any special manner, to those who are under an obligation to keep the counsels; for, by the right hand, or the chosen members of Christ, all good men are signified. This we know by the following passage of St. Gregory (ibid.): “All the faithful of Holy Church are spoken of under the name of the right hand.” Even, however, though perfect men be understood by the expression “right hand,” this is no proof that the passage we have quoted is especially applicable to religious. For men may be perfect in the order of charity, even though they be married. Prelates, in like manner, are in state of perfection. Hence it is not only religious who are meant by the chosen members of Christ. The fallacy contained in this argument makes it easy for us to see what underlies the ensuing one. The enemies of religious assert that religious are the future emissaries of Antichrist, on account of the words: “It will come to pass that Herod will seek the child to destroy, him” (Matt. ii. 13). The Gloss comments on this passage thus: “As soon as Christ came into the world, persecution arose against Him—a type of the future persecution of the Saints.” From this it is argued that, as at the coming of our Lord He was opposed by those who seemed to be the most wise and holy among men, (i.e. the Scribes and Pharisees), so at the end of the world, the faithful of Christ will be attacked by those who will seem to be the best and wisest, viz., by leaxned and religious men. This argument, however, carries no weight. For, not only the Scribes and Pharisees, but the High priests, Annas and Caiphas, and the civil rulers, Herod and Pilate, persecuted our Lord. Neither were all those who persecuted Him Scribes; for some were only Pharisees. Hence this argument does not prove that the future persecutors of the Church are to be learned rather than illiterate religious, or religious rather than bishops, or religious rather than secular sovereigns and dignitaries.

From all the foregoing arguments then they conclude that the heralds of Antichrist will be Christians, apparently virtuous, devoted to study, strong in giving advice, religious men, bound to the observance of the counsels. Thus, although names are not mentioned, the victims of this infamous charge are as clearly designated as if they were named. If Socrates be the son of Sophroniscus, we mean the same person, whether we speak of him as Socrates, or as the son of Sophroniscus. The mode in which the accusation is brought against religious is inexcusable; and it proves that a personal attack is intended.

We will now refute the calumny point by point:

1. The first error lies in defining the heralds of Antichrist as one race of men, when, as we know by the Gloss on Ps. lxxxii, Antichrists will spring from all classes of men.