diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 9f563c044..d0a3f6275 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -24,3 +24,4 @@ test/auth/*
 
 /chai.js
 /chai.cjs
+/lib
diff --git a/index.js b/index.js
deleted file mode 100644
index ea4874863..000000000
--- a/index.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-export * from './lib/chai.js';
diff --git a/lib/chai/assertion.js b/lib/chai/assertion.js
deleted file mode 100644
index 54a9d77ff..000000000
--- a/lib/chai/assertion.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,165 +0,0 @@
-/*!
- * chai
- * http://chaijs.com
- * Copyright(c) 2011-2014 Jake Luer <jake@alogicalparadox.com>
- * MIT Licensed
- */
-
-import {config} from './config.js';
-import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
-import * as util from './utils/index.js';
-
-/*!
- * Assertion Constructor
- *
- * Creates object for chaining.
- *
- * `Assertion` objects contain metadata in the form of flags. Three flags can
- * be assigned during instantiation by passing arguments to this constructor:
- *
- * - `object`: This flag contains the target of the assertion. For example, in
- *   the assertion `expect(numKittens).to.equal(7);`, the `object` flag will
- *   contain `numKittens` so that the `equal` assertion can reference it when
- *   needed.
- *
- * - `message`: This flag contains an optional custom error message to be
- *   prepended to the error message that's generated by the assertion when it
- *   fails.
- *
- * - `ssfi`: This flag stands for "start stack function indicator". It
- *   contains a function reference that serves as the starting point for
- *   removing frames from the stack trace of the error that's created by the
- *   assertion when it fails. The goal is to provide a cleaner stack trace to
- *   end users by removing Chai's internal functions. Note that it only works
- *   in environments that support `Error.captureStackTrace`, and only when
- *   `Chai.config.includeStack` hasn't been set to `false`.
- *
- * - `lockSsfi`: This flag controls whether or not the given `ssfi` flag
- *   should retain its current value, even as assertions are chained off of
- *   this object. This is usually set to `true` when creating a new assertion
- *   from within another assertion. It's also temporarily set to `true` before
- *   an overwritten assertion gets called by the overwriting assertion.
- *
- * - `eql`: This flag contains the deepEqual function to be used by the assertion.
- *
- * @param {Mixed} obj target of the assertion
- * @param {String} msg (optional) custom error message
- * @param {Function} ssfi (optional) starting point for removing stack frames
- * @param {Boolean} lockSsfi (optional) whether or not the ssfi flag is locked
- * @api private
- */
-
-export function Assertion (obj, msg, ssfi, lockSsfi) {
-  util.flag(this, 'ssfi', ssfi || Assertion);
-  util.flag(this, 'lockSsfi', lockSsfi);
-  util.flag(this, 'object', obj);
-  util.flag(this, 'message', msg);
-  util.flag(this, 'eql', config.deepEqual ?? util.eql);
-
-  return util.proxify(this);
-}
-
-Object.defineProperty(Assertion, 'includeStack', {
-  get: function() {
-    console.warn('Assertion.includeStack is deprecated, use chai.config.includeStack instead.');
-    return config.includeStack;
-  },
-  set: function(value) {
-    console.warn('Assertion.includeStack is deprecated, use chai.config.includeStack instead.');
-    config.includeStack = value;
-  }
-});
-
-Object.defineProperty(Assertion, 'showDiff', {
-  get: function() {
-    console.warn('Assertion.showDiff is deprecated, use chai.config.showDiff instead.');
-    return config.showDiff;
-  },
-  set: function(value) {
-    console.warn('Assertion.showDiff is deprecated, use chai.config.showDiff instead.');
-    config.showDiff = value;
-  }
-});
-
-Assertion.addProperty = function (name, fn) {
-  util.addProperty(this.prototype, name, fn);
-};
-
-Assertion.addMethod = function (name, fn) {
-  util.addMethod(this.prototype, name, fn);
-};
-
-Assertion.addChainableMethod = function (name, fn, chainingBehavior) {
-  util.addChainableMethod(this.prototype, name, fn, chainingBehavior);
-};
-
-Assertion.overwriteProperty = function (name, fn) {
-  util.overwriteProperty(this.prototype, name, fn);
-};
-
-Assertion.overwriteMethod = function (name, fn) {
-  util.overwriteMethod(this.prototype, name, fn);
-};
-
-Assertion.overwriteChainableMethod = function (name, fn, chainingBehavior) {
-  util.overwriteChainableMethod(this.prototype, name, fn, chainingBehavior);
-};
-
-/**
- * ### .assert(expression, message, negateMessage, expected, actual, showDiff)
- *
- * Executes an expression and check expectations. Throws AssertionError for reporting if test doesn't pass.
- *
- * @name assert
- * @param {Philosophical} expression to be tested
- * @param {String|Function} message or function that returns message to display if expression fails
- * @param {String|Function} negatedMessage or function that returns negatedMessage to display if negated expression fails
- * @param {Mixed} expected value (remember to check for negation)
- * @param {Mixed} actual (optional) will default to `this.obj`
- * @param {Boolean} showDiff (optional) when set to `true`, assert will display a diff in addition to the message if expression fails
- * @api private
- */
-
-Assertion.prototype.assert = function (expr, msg, negateMsg, expected, _actual, showDiff) {
-  var ok = util.test(this, arguments);
-  if (false !== showDiff) showDiff = true;
-  if (undefined === expected && undefined === _actual) showDiff = false;
-  if (true !== config.showDiff) showDiff = false;
-
-  if (!ok) {
-    msg = util.getMessage(this, arguments);
-    var actual = util.getActual(this, arguments);
-    var assertionErrorObjectProperties = {
-        actual: actual
-      , expected: expected
-      , showDiff: showDiff
-    };
-
-    var operator = util.getOperator(this, arguments);
-    if (operator) {
-      assertionErrorObjectProperties.operator = operator;
-    }
-
-    throw new AssertionError(
-      msg,
-      assertionErrorObjectProperties,
-      (config.includeStack) ? this.assert : util.flag(this, 'ssfi'));
-  }
-};
-
-/*!
- * ### ._obj
- *
- * Quick reference to stored `actual` value for plugin developers.
- *
- * @api private
- */
-
-Object.defineProperty(Assertion.prototype, '_obj',
-  { get: function () {
-      return util.flag(this, 'object');
-    }
-  , set: function (val) {
-      util.flag(this, 'object', val);
-    }
-});
diff --git a/lib/chai/interface/expect.js b/lib/chai/interface/expect.js
deleted file mode 100644
index 70a9416c2..000000000
--- a/lib/chai/interface/expect.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,50 +0,0 @@
-/*!
- * chai
- * Copyright(c) 2011-2014 Jake Luer <jake@alogicalparadox.com>
- * MIT Licensed
- */
-
-import * as chai from '../../../index.js';
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
-import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
-
-function expect(val, message) {
-  return new Assertion(val, message);
-}
-
-export {expect};
-/**
- * ### .fail([message])
- * ### .fail(actual, expected, [message], [operator])
- *
- * Throw a failure.
- *
- *     expect.fail();
- *     expect.fail("custom error message");
- *     expect.fail(1, 2);
- *     expect.fail(1, 2, "custom error message");
- *     expect.fail(1, 2, "custom error message", ">");
- *     expect.fail(1, 2, undefined, ">");
- *
- * @name fail
- * @param {Mixed} actual
- * @param {Mixed} expected
- * @param {String} message
- * @param {String} operator
- * @namespace BDD
- * @api public
- */
-
-expect.fail = function (actual, expected, message, operator) {
-  if (arguments.length < 2) {
-      message = actual;
-      actual = undefined;
-  }
-
-  message = message || 'expect.fail()';
-  throw new AssertionError(message, {
-      actual: actual
-    , expected: expected
-    , operator: operator
-  }, chai.expect.fail);
-};
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/flag.js b/lib/chai/utils/flag.js
deleted file mode 100644
index 79637ad3c..000000000
--- a/lib/chai/utils/flag.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,33 +0,0 @@
-/*!
- * Chai - flag utility
- * Copyright(c) 2012-2014 Jake Luer <jake@alogicalparadox.com>
- * MIT Licensed
- */
-
-/**
- * ### .flag(object, key, [value])
- *
- * Get or set a flag value on an object. If a
- * value is provided it will be set, else it will
- * return the currently set value or `undefined` if
- * the value is not set.
- *
- *     utils.flag(this, 'foo', 'bar'); // setter
- *     utils.flag(this, 'foo'); // getter, returns `bar`
- *
- * @param {Object} object constructed Assertion
- * @param {String} key
- * @param {Mixed} value (optional)
- * @namespace Utils
- * @name flag
- * @api private
- */
-
-export function flag(obj, key, value) {
-  var flags = obj.__flags || (obj.__flags = Object.create(null));
-  if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    flags[key] = value;
-  } else {
-    return flags[key];
-  }
-}
diff --git a/package-lock.json b/package-lock.json
index 4b71f8d22..f6ef94f52 100644
--- a/package-lock.json
+++ b/package-lock.json
@@ -9,6 +9,9 @@
       "version": "5.0.0",
       "license": "MIT",
       "dependencies": {
+        "@types/check-error": "^1.0.3",
+        "@types/deep-eql": "^4.0.2",
+        "@types/pathval": "^1.1.2",
         "assertion-error": "^2.0.1",
         "check-error": "^2.0.0",
         "deep-eql": "^5.0.1",
@@ -21,7 +24,8 @@
         "@web/test-runner": "^0.18.0",
         "@web/test-runner-playwright": "^0.11.0",
         "esbuild": "^0.19.10",
-        "mocha": "^10.2.0"
+        "mocha": "^10.2.0",
+        "typescript": "^5.3.3"
       },
       "engines": {
         "node": ">=12"
@@ -86,9 +90,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/aix-ppc64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/aix-ppc64/-/aix-ppc64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-Q+mk96KJ+FZ30h9fsJl+67IjNJm3x2eX+GBWGmocAKgzp27cowCOOqSdscX80s0SpdFXZnIv/+1xD1EctFx96Q==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/aix-ppc64/-/aix-ppc64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-FnzU0LyE3ySQk7UntJO4+qIiQgI7KoODnZg5xzXIrFJlKd2P2gwHsHY4927xj9y5PJmJSzULiUCWmv7iWnNa7g==",
       "cpu": [
         "ppc64"
       ],
@@ -102,9 +106,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/android-arm": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/android-arm/-/android-arm-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-7W0bK7qfkw1fc2viBfrtAEkDKHatYfHzr/jKAHNr9BvkYDXPcC6bodtm8AyLJNNuqClLNaeTLuwURt4PRT9d7w==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/android-arm/-/android-arm-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-5OVapq0ClabvKvQ58Bws8+wkLCV+Rxg7tUVbo9xu034Nm536QTII4YzhaFriQ7rMrorfnFKUsArD2lqKbFY4vw==",
       "cpu": [
         "arm"
       ],
@@ -118,9 +122,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/android-arm64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/android-arm64/-/android-arm64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-1X4CClKhDgC3by7k8aOWZeBXQX8dHT5QAMCAQDArCLaYfkppoARvh0fit3X2Qs+MXDngKcHv6XXyQCpY0hkK1Q==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/android-arm64/-/android-arm64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-aiu7K/5JnLj//KOnOfEZ0D90obUkRzDMyqd/wNAUQ34m4YUPVhRZpnqKV9uqDGxT7cToSDnIHsGooyIczu9T+Q==",
       "cpu": [
         "arm64"
       ],
@@ -134,9 +138,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/android-x64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/android-x64/-/android-x64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-O/nO/g+/7NlitUxETkUv/IvADKuZXyH4BHf/g/7laqKC4i/7whLpB0gvpPc2zpF0q9Q6FXS3TS75QHac9MvVWw==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/android-x64/-/android-x64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-eccxjlfGw43WYoY9QgB82SgGgDbibcqyDTlk3l3C0jOVHKxrjdc9CTwDUQd0vkvYg5um0OH+GpxYvp39r+IPOg==",
       "cpu": [
         "x64"
       ],
@@ -150,9 +154,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/darwin-arm64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/darwin-arm64/-/darwin-arm64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-YSRRs2zOpwypck+6GL3wGXx2gNP7DXzetmo5pHXLrY/VIMsS59yKfjPizQ4lLt5vEI80M41gjm2BxrGZ5U+VMA==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/darwin-arm64/-/darwin-arm64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-ETp87DRWuSt9KdDVkqSoKoLFHYTrkyz2+65fj9nfXsaV3bMhTCjtQfw3y+um88vGRKRiF7erPrh/ZuIdLUIVxQ==",
       "cpu": [
         "arm64"
       ],
@@ -166,9 +170,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/darwin-x64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/darwin-x64/-/darwin-x64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-alfGtT+IEICKtNE54hbvPg13xGBe4GkVxyGWtzr+yHO7HIiRJppPDhOKq3zstTcVf8msXb/t4eavW3jCDpMSmA==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/darwin-x64/-/darwin-x64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-fkFUiS6IUK9WYUO/+22omwetaSNl5/A8giXvQlcinLIjVkxwTLSktbF5f/kJMftM2MJp9+fXqZ5ezS7+SALp4g==",
       "cpu": [
         "x64"
       ],
@@ -182,9 +186,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/freebsd-arm64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/freebsd-arm64/-/freebsd-arm64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-dMtk1wc7FSH8CCkE854GyGuNKCewlh+7heYP/sclpOG6Cectzk14qdUIY5CrKDbkA/OczXq9WesqnPl09mj5dg==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/freebsd-arm64/-/freebsd-arm64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-lhoSp5K6bxKRNdXUtHoNc5HhbXVCS8V0iZmDvyWvYq9S5WSfTIHU2UGjcGt7UeS6iEYp9eeymIl5mJBn0yiuxA==",
       "cpu": [
         "arm64"
       ],
@@ -198,9 +202,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/freebsd-x64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/freebsd-x64/-/freebsd-x64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-G5UPPspryHu1T3uX8WiOEUa6q6OlQh6gNl4CO4Iw5PS+Kg5bVggVFehzXBJY6X6RSOMS8iXDv2330VzaObm4Ag==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/freebsd-x64/-/freebsd-x64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-JkUqn44AffGXitVI6/AbQdoYAq0TEullFdqcMY/PCUZ36xJ9ZJRtQabzMA+Vi7r78+25ZIBosLTOKnUXBSi1Kw==",
       "cpu": [
         "x64"
       ],
@@ -214,9 +218,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-arm": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-arm/-/linux-arm-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-j6gUW5aAaPgD416Hk9FHxn27On28H4eVI9rJ4az7oCGTFW48+LcgNDBN+9f8rKZz7EEowo889CPKyeaD0iw9Kg==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-arm/-/linux-arm-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-3CRkr9+vCV2XJbjwgzjPtO8T0SZUmRZla+UL1jw+XqHZPkPgZiyWvbDvl9rqAN8Zl7qJF0O/9ycMtjU67HN9/Q==",
       "cpu": [
         "arm"
       ],
@@ -230,9 +234,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-arm64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-arm64/-/linux-arm64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-QxaouHWZ+2KWEj7cGJmvTIHVALfhpGxo3WLmlYfJ+dA5fJB6lDEIg+oe/0//FuyVHuS3l79/wyBxbHr0NgtxJQ==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-arm64/-/linux-arm64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-LneLg3ypEeveBSMuoa0kwMpCGmpu8XQUh+mL8XXwoYZ6Be2qBnVtcDI5azSvh7vioMDhoJFZzp9GWp9IWpYoUg==",
       "cpu": [
         "arm64"
       ],
@@ -246,9 +250,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-ia32": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-ia32/-/linux-ia32-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-4ub1YwXxYjj9h1UIZs2hYbnTZBtenPw5NfXCRgEkGb0b6OJ2gpkMvDqRDYIDRjRdWSe/TBiZltm3Y3Q8SN1xNg==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-ia32/-/linux-ia32-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-caHy++CsD8Bgq2V5CodbJjFPEiDPq8JJmBdeyZ8GWVQMjRD0sU548nNdwPNvKjVpamYYVL40AORekgfIubwHoA==",
       "cpu": [
         "ia32"
       ],
@@ -262,9 +266,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-loong64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-loong64/-/linux-loong64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-lo3I9k+mbEKoxtoIbM0yC/MZ1i2wM0cIeOejlVdZ3D86LAcFXFRdeuZmh91QJvUTW51bOK5W2BznGNIl4+mDaA==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-loong64/-/linux-loong64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-ppZSSLVpPrwHccvC6nQVZaSHlFsvCQyjnvirnVjbKSHuE5N24Yl8F3UwYUUR1UEPaFObGD2tSvVKbvR+uT1Nrg==",
       "cpu": [
         "loong64"
       ],
@@ -278,9 +282,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-mips64el": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-mips64el/-/linux-mips64el-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-J4gH3zhHNbdZN0Bcr1QUGVNkHTdpijgx5VMxeetSk6ntdt+vR1DqGmHxQYHRmNb77tP6GVvD+K0NyO4xjd7y4A==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-mips64el/-/linux-mips64el-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-B5x9j0OgjG+v1dF2DkH34lr+7Gmv0kzX6/V0afF41FkPMMqaQ77pH7CrhWeR22aEeHKaeZVtZ6yFwlxOKPVFyg==",
       "cpu": [
         "mips64el"
       ],
@@ -294,9 +298,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-ppc64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-ppc64/-/linux-ppc64-0.19.10.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-tgT/7u+QhV6ge8wFMzaklOY7KqiyitgT1AUHMApau32ZlvTB/+efeCtMk4eXS+uEymYK249JsoiklZN64xt6oQ==",
+      "version": "0.19.11",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-ppc64/-/linux-ppc64-0.19.11.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-MHrZYLeCG8vXblMetWyttkdVRjQlQUb/oMgBNurVEnhj4YWOr4G5lmBfZjHYQHHN0g6yDmCAQRR8MUHldvvRDA==",
       "cpu": [
         "ppc64"
       ],
@@ -310,9 +314,9 @@
       }
     },
     "node_modules/@esbuild/linux-riscv64": {
-      "version": "0.19.10",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@esbuild/linux-riscv64/-/linux-riscv64-0.19.10.tgz",
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+      "version": "0.19.11",
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-    "node_modules/wrap-ansi/node_modules/ansi-styles": {
-      "version": "4.3.0",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ansi-styles/-/ansi-styles-4.3.0.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-zbB9rCJAT1rbjiVDb2hqKFHNYLxgtk8NURxZ3IZwD3F6NtxbXZQCnnSi1Lkx+IDohdPlFp222wVALIheZJQSEg==",
-      "dev": true,
-      "dependencies": {
-        "color-convert": "^2.0.1"
-      },
-      "engines": {
-        "node": ">=8"
+        "node": ">=10"
       },
       "funding": {
-        "url": "https://github.com/chalk/ansi-styles?sponsor=1"
-      }
-    },
-    "node_modules/wrap-ansi/node_modules/color-convert": {
-      "version": "2.0.1",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/color-convert/-/color-convert-2.0.1.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-RRECPsj7iu/xb5oKYcsFHSppFNnsj/52OVTRKb4zP5onXwVF3zVmmToNcOfGC+CRDpfK/U584fMg38ZHCaElKQ==",
-      "dev": true,
-      "dependencies": {
-        "color-name": "~1.1.4"
-      },
-      "engines": {
-        "node": ">=7.0.0"
+        "url": "https://github.com/chalk/wrap-ansi?sponsor=1"
       }
     },
-    "node_modules/wrap-ansi/node_modules/color-name": {
-      "version": "1.1.4",
-      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/color-name/-/color-name-1.1.4.tgz",
-      "integrity": "sha512-dOy+3AuW3a2wNbZHIuMZpTcgjGuLU/uBL/ubcZF9OXbDo8ff4O8yVp5Bf0efS8uEoYo5q4Fx7dY9OgQGXgAsQA==",
-      "dev": true
-    },
     "node_modules/wrappy": {
       "version": "1.0.2",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/wrappy/-/wrappy-1.0.2.tgz",
@@ -5256,6 +5074,15 @@
         "node": ">=10"
       }
     },
+    "node_modules/yargs-unparser/node_modules/is-plain-obj": {
+      "version": "2.1.0",
+      "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/is-plain-obj/-/is-plain-obj-2.1.0.tgz",
+      "integrity": "sha512-YWnfyRwxL/+SsrWYfOpUtz5b3YD+nyfkHvjbcanzk8zgyO4ASD67uVMRt8k5bM4lLMDnXfriRhOpemw+NfT1eA==",
+      "dev": true,
+      "engines": {
+        "node": ">=8"
+      }
+    },
     "node_modules/yauzl": {
       "version": "2.10.0",
       "resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/yauzl/-/yauzl-2.10.0.tgz",
diff --git a/package.json b/package.json
index a53097a02..f60e80d59 100644
--- a/package.json
+++ b/package.json
@@ -3,6 +3,11 @@
   "name": "chai",
   "type": "module",
   "description": "BDD/TDD assertion library for node.js and the browser. Test framework agnostic.",
+  "files": [
+    "lib",
+    "/chai.js",
+    "/register-*"
+  ],
   "keywords": [
     "test",
     "assertion",
@@ -29,13 +34,14 @@
   "main": "./chai.js",
   "scripts": {
     "prebuild": "npm run clean",
-    "build": "npm run build:esm",
-    "build:esm": "esbuild --bundle --format=esm --keep-names --outfile=chai.js index.js",
+    "build": "npm run build:ts && npm run build:esm",
+    "build:ts": "tsc",
+    "build:esm": "esbuild --bundle --format=esm --keep-names --outfile=chai.js src/chai.ts",
     "pretest": "npm run build",
     "test": "npm run test-node && npm run test-chrome",
     "test-node": "mocha --require ./test/bootstrap/index.js --reporter dot test/*.js",
     "test-chrome": "web-test-runner --playwright",
-    "clean": "rm -f chai.js coverage"
+    "clean": "rm -rf chai.js coverage lib"
   },
   "engines": {
     "node": ">=12"
@@ -45,7 +51,10 @@
     "check-error": "^2.0.0",
     "deep-eql": "^5.0.1",
     "loupe": "^3.0.0",
-    "pathval": "^2.0.0"
+    "pathval": "^2.0.0",
+    "@types/check-error": "^1.0.3",
+    "@types/deep-eql": "^4.0.2",
+    "@types/pathval": "^1.1.2"
   },
   "devDependencies": {
     "@rollup/plugin-commonjs": "^25.0.7",
@@ -53,6 +62,7 @@
     "@web/test-runner": "^0.18.0",
     "@web/test-runner-playwright": "^0.11.0",
     "esbuild": "^0.19.10",
-    "mocha": "^10.2.0"
+    "mocha": "^10.2.0",
+    "typescript": "^5.3.3"
   }
 }
diff --git a/register-assert.js b/register-assert.js
index f593717e0..9061dc6dd 100644
--- a/register-assert.js
+++ b/register-assert.js
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-import {assert} from './index.js';
+import {assert} from './lib/chai.js';
 
 globalThis.assert = assert;
diff --git a/register-expect.js b/register-expect.js
index 2807b89be..0f38da5a1 100644
--- a/register-expect.js
+++ b/register-expect.js
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-import {expect} from './index.js';
+import {expect} from './lib/chai.js';
 
 globalThis.expect = expect;
diff --git a/register-should.js b/register-should.js
index 1339ee4c4..a3340b816 100644
--- a/register-should.js
+++ b/register-should.js
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-import {should} from './index.js';
+import {should} from './lib/chai.js';
 
 globalThis.should = should();
diff --git a/lib/chai.js b/src/chai.ts
similarity index 88%
rename from lib/chai.js
rename to src/chai.ts
index 7569595c9..5801ea234 100644
--- a/lib/chai.js
+++ b/src/chai.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,9 @@ import {Assertion} from './chai/assertion.js';
 import * as should from './chai/interface/should.js';
 import {assert} from './chai/interface/assert.js';
 
-const used = [];
+type UseFn = (exports: Record<PropertyKey, unknown>, u: typeof util) => void;
+
+const used: Array<UseFn> = [];
 
 /*!
  * Assertion Error
@@ -31,7 +33,7 @@ export {AssertionError};
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function use(fn) {
+export function use(fn: UseFn): Record<string, unknown> {
   const exports = {
     AssertionError,
     util,
diff --git a/src/chai/assertion.ts b/src/chai/assertion.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..1dfb2dce5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/chai/assertion.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,226 @@
+/*!
+ * chai
+ * http://chaijs.com
+ * Copyright(c) 2011-2014 Jake Luer <jake@alogicalparadox.com>
+ * MIT Licensed
+ */
+
+import {config} from './config.js';
+import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
+import * as util from './utils/index.js';
+import {ChainableBehavior} from './utils/chainableBehavior.js';
+
+export interface AssertionFlags {
+  ssfi: Function;
+  lockSsfi?: boolean;
+  object: unknown;
+  message?: string | null;
+  eql: (a: unknown, b: unknown) => boolean;
+  [key: PropertyKey]: unknown;
+}
+
+type MethodNames<T> = {
+  [k in keyof T]: T[k] extends (...args: never) => void ? k : never;
+}[keyof T];
+
+const getDefaultValue = (assertion: Assertion): Assertion => {
+    var newAssertion = Assertion.create();
+    util.transferFlags(assertion, newAssertion);
+    return newAssertion;
+};
+
+/*!
+ * Assertion Constructor
+ *
+ * Creates object for chaining.
+ *
+ * `Assertion` objects contain metadata in the form of flags. Three flags can
+ * be assigned during instantiation by passing arguments to this constructor:
+ *
+ * - `object`: This flag contains the target of the assertion. For example, in
+ *   the assertion `expect(numKittens).to.equal(7);`, the `object` flag will
+ *   contain `numKittens` so that the `equal` assertion can reference it when
+ *   needed.
+ *
+ * - `message`: This flag contains an optional custom error message to be
+ *   prepended to the error message that's generated by the assertion when it
+ *   fails.
+ *
+ * - `ssfi`: This flag stands for "start stack function indicator". It
+ *   contains a function reference that serves as the starting point for
+ *   removing frames from the stack trace of the error that's created by the
+ *   assertion when it fails. The goal is to provide a cleaner stack trace to
+ *   end users by removing Chai's internal functions. Note that it only works
+ *   in environments that support `Error.captureStackTrace`, and only when
+ *   `Chai.config.includeStack` hasn't been set to `false`.
+ *
+ * - `lockSsfi`: This flag controls whether or not the given `ssfi` flag
+ *   should retain its current value, even as assertions are chained off of
+ *   this object. This is usually set to `true` when creating a new assertion
+ *   from within another assertion. It's also temporarily set to `true` before
+ *   an overwritten assertion gets called by the overwriting assertion.
+ *
+ * - `eql`: This flag contains the deepEqual function to be used by the assertion.
+ *
+ * @param {Mixed} obj target of the assertion
+ * @param {String} msg (optional) custom error message
+ * @param {Function} ssfi (optional) starting point for removing stack frames
+ * @param {Boolean} lockSsfi (optional) whether or not the ssfi flag is locked
+ * @api private
+ */
+export class Assertion {
+  declare public __flags: AssertionFlags;
+  public __methods: Record<string, ChainableBehavior> = {};
+
+  public constructor(
+    obj?: unknown,
+    msg?: string | null,
+    ssfi?: Function,
+    lockSsfi?: boolean
+  ) {
+    util.flag(this, 'ssfi', ssfi || Assertion);
+    util.flag(this, 'lockSsfi', lockSsfi);
+    util.flag(this, 'object', obj);
+    util.flag(this, 'message', msg);
+    util.flag(this, 'eql', config.deepEqual ?? util.eql);
+  }
+
+  public static create(
+    obj?: unknown,
+    msg?: string | null,
+    ssfi?: Function,
+    lockSsfi?: boolean
+  ): Assertion {
+    return util.proxify(new Assertion(
+      obj,
+      msg,
+      ssfi,
+      lockSsfi
+    ));
+  }
+
+  public static get includeStack(): boolean {
+    console.warn('Assertion.includeStack is deprecated, use chai.config.includeStack instead.');
+    return config.includeStack;
+  }
+
+  public static set includeStack(value: boolean) {
+    console.warn('Assertion.includeStack is deprecated, use chai.config.includeStack instead.');
+    config.includeStack = value;
+  }
+
+  public static get showDiff(): boolean {
+    console.warn('Assertion.showDiff is deprecated, use chai.config.showDiff instead.');
+    return config.showDiff;
+  }
+
+  public static set showDiff(value: boolean) {
+    console.warn('Assertion.showDiff is deprecated, use chai.config.showDiff instead.');
+    config.showDiff = value;
+  }
+
+  public static addProperty(name: string, fn?: (this: Assertion) => unknown): void {
+    util.addProperty(this.prototype, name, fn, getDefaultValue);
+  }
+
+  public static addMethod<
+    TKey extends PropertyKey
+  >(
+    name: TKey,
+    fn: TKey extends MethodNames<Assertion> ?
+      (this: Assertion, ...args: Parameters<Assertion[TKey]>) => (ReturnType<Assertion[TKey]> extends Assertion ? (Assertion | void) : ReturnType<Assertion[TKey]>) :
+      ((this: Assertion, ...args: never) => unknown)
+  ): void {
+    util.addMethod(this.prototype, name, fn, getDefaultValue);
+  }
+
+  public static addChainableMethod<T extends unknown[]>(
+    name: string,
+    fn: (this: Assertion, ...args: T) => unknown,
+    chainingBehavior?: () => void
+  ): void {
+    util.addChainableMethod(
+      this.prototype,
+      name,
+      fn as (...args: unknown[]) => unknown,
+      chainingBehavior,
+      getDefaultValue
+    );
+  }
+
+  public static overwriteProperty(name: string, fn: Function): void {
+    util.overwriteProperty(this.prototype, name, fn, getDefaultValue);
+  }
+
+  public static overwriteMethod(name: string, fn: Function): void {
+    util.overwriteMethod(this.prototype, name, fn, getDefaultValue);
+  }
+
+  public static overwriteChainableMethod(name: string, fn: Function, chainingBehavior: Function): void {
+    util.overwriteChainableMethod(this.prototype, name, fn, chainingBehavior, getDefaultValue);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * ### .assert(expression, message, negateMessage, expected, actual, showDiff)
+   *
+   * Executes an expression and check expectations. Throws AssertionError for reporting if test doesn't pass.
+   *
+   * @name assert
+   * @param {Philosophical} expression to be tested
+   * @param {String|Function} message or function that returns message to display if expression fails
+   * @param {String|Function} negatedMessage or function that returns negatedMessage to display if negated expression fails
+   * @param {Mixed} expected value (remember to check for negation)
+   * @param {Mixed} actual (optional) will default to `this.obj`
+   * @param {Boolean} showDiff (optional) when set to `true`, assert will display a diff in addition to the message if expression fails
+   * @api private
+   */
+  public assert(
+    _expr: unknown,
+    msg?: string | (() => string),
+    _negateMsg?: string | (() => string),
+    expected?: unknown,
+    _actual?: unknown,
+    showDiff?: boolean
+  ): void {
+    var ok = util.test(this, arguments);
+    if (false !== showDiff) showDiff = true;
+    if (undefined === expected && undefined === _actual) showDiff = false;
+    if (true !== config.showDiff) showDiff = false;
+
+    if (!ok) {
+      msg = util.getMessage(this, arguments);
+      var actual = util.getActual(this, arguments);
+      var assertionErrorObjectProperties: Record<string, unknown> = {
+          actual: actual
+        , expected: expected
+        , showDiff: showDiff
+        , operator: undefined
+      };
+
+      var operator = util.getOperator(this, arguments);
+      if (operator) {
+        assertionErrorObjectProperties.operator = operator;
+      }
+
+      throw new AssertionError(
+        msg,
+        assertionErrorObjectProperties,
+        (config.includeStack) ? this.assert : util.flag(this, 'ssfi'));
+    }
+  }
+
+  /*!
+   * ### ._obj
+   *
+   * Quick reference to stored `actual` value for plugin developers.
+   *
+   * @api private
+   */
+  public get _obj(): unknown {
+    return util.flag(this, 'object');
+  }
+
+  public set _obj(val: unknown) {
+    util.flag(this, 'object', val);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/lib/chai/config.js b/src/chai/config.ts
similarity index 100%
rename from lib/chai/config.js
rename to src/chai/config.ts
diff --git a/lib/chai/core/assertions.js b/src/chai/core/assertions.ts
similarity index 87%
rename from lib/chai/core/assertions.js
rename to src/chai/core/assertions.ts
index 4da999273..9751bcd2a 100644
--- a/lib/chai/core/assertions.js
+++ b/src/chai/core/assertions.ts
@@ -11,6 +11,151 @@ import * as _ from '../utils/index.js';
 
 const {flag} = _;
 
+type ChainedMethod<T extends unknown[]> = Assertion & {
+  (...args: T): Assertion;
+};
+
+type AssertionMethod<TParams extends unknown[], TReturn = Assertion> = (...args: TParams) => TReturn;
+
+type Constructor<T> = {new(): T};
+
+declare module '../assertion.js' {
+  interface Assertion {
+    Arguments: Assertion;
+    NaN: Assertion;
+    all: Assertion;
+    also: Assertion;
+    and: Assertion;
+    any: Assertion;
+    arguments: Assertion;
+    at: Assertion;
+    be: Assertion;
+    been: Assertion;
+    but: Assertion;
+    deep: Assertion;
+    does: Assertion;
+    empty: Assertion;
+    exist: Assertion;
+    exists: Assertion;
+    extensible: Assertion;
+    false: Assertion;
+    finite: Assertion;
+    frozen: Assertion;
+    has: Assertion;
+    have: Assertion;
+    is: Assertion;
+    itself: Assertion;
+    nested: Assertion;
+    not: Assertion;
+    null: Assertion;
+    of: Assertion;
+    ok: Assertion;
+    ordered: Assertion;
+    own: Assertion;
+    same: Assertion;
+    sealed: Assertion;
+    still: Assertion;
+    that: Assertion;
+    to: Assertion;
+    true: Assertion;
+    undefined: Assertion;
+    which: Assertion;
+    with: Assertion;
+
+    a: ChainedMethod<[type: string, msg?: string]>;
+    an: ChainedMethod<[type: string, msg?: string]>;
+
+    above: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    gt: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+    greaterThan: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+
+    approximately: AssertionMethod<[expected: number, delta: number, msg?: string]>;
+    closeTo: AssertionMethod<[expected: number, delta: number, msg?: string]>;
+
+    below: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    lt: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+    lessThan: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+
+    by: AssertionMethod<[delta: number, msg?: string]>;
+
+    change: AssertionMethod<[subject: object, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[subject: Function]>;
+    changes: AssertionMethod<[subject: object, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[subject: Function]>;
+
+    contain: ChainedMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    contains: ChainedMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    include: ChainedMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    includes: ChainedMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+
+    decrease: AssertionMethod<[subject: Function]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[subject: object, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string]>;
+    decreases: AssertionMethod<[subject: Function]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[subject: object, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string]>;
+
+    eq: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    equal: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    equals: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+
+    eql: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    eqls: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+
+    greaterThanOrEqual: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+    least: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    gte: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+
+    haveOwnProperty: AssertionMethod<[name: PropertyKey, val?: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+    ownProperty: AssertionMethod<[name: PropertyKey, val?: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+
+    haveOwnPropertyDescriptor: AssertionMethod<[name: PropertyKey, descriptor: PropertyDescriptor, msg?: string]>;
+    ownPropertyDescriptor: AssertionMethod<[name: PropertyKey, descriptor: PropertyDescriptor, msg?: string]>;
+
+    increase: AssertionMethod<[subject: Function]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[subject: object, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string]>;
+    increases: AssertionMethod<[subject: Function]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[subject: object, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string]>;
+
+    instanceOf: AssertionMethod<[ctor: Constructor<unknown>, msg?: string]>;
+    instanceof: AssertionMethod<[ctor: Constructor<unknown>, msg?: string]>;
+
+    key: AssertionMethod<[keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>]>;
+    keys: AssertionMethod<[keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>]>;
+
+    length: ChainedMethod<[n?: number, msg?: string]>;
+    lengthOf: ChainedMethod<[n?: number, msg?: string]>;
+
+    lessThanOrEqual: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+    lte: AssertionMethod<[val: number, msg?: string]>;
+    most: AssertionMethod<[val: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+
+    match: AssertionMethod<[re: RegExp, msg?: string]>;
+    matches: AssertionMethod<[re: RegExp, msg?: string]>;
+
+    members: AssertionMethod<[subset: unknown[], msg?: string]>;
+
+    oneOf: AssertionMethod<[list: unknown[], msg?: string]>;
+
+    property: AssertionMethod<[name: PropertyKey, val?: unknown, msg?: string]>;
+
+    respondTo: AssertionMethod<[method: string, msg?: string]>;
+    respondsTo: AssertionMethod<[method: string, msg?: string]>;
+
+    satifies: AssertionMethod<[matcher: Function, msg?: string]>;
+    satisfy: AssertionMethod<[matcher: Function, msg?: string]>;
+
+    string: AssertionMethod<[str: string, msg?: string]>;
+
+    Throw: AssertionMethod<[errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>, errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp, msg?: string]>;
+    throws: AssertionMethod<[errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>, errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp, msg?: string]>;
+    throw: AssertionMethod<[errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp]> &
+      AssertionMethod<[errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>, errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp, msg?: string]>;
+
+    within: AssertionMethod<[start: number, finish: number, msg?: string]>;
+  }
+}
+
 /**
  * ### Language Chains
  *
@@ -299,7 +444,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('all', function () {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function an (type, msg) {
+function an (this: Assertion, type: string, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   type = type.toLowerCase();
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
@@ -462,15 +607,15 @@ Assertion.addChainableMethod('a', an);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function SameValueZero(a, b) {
+function SameValueZero(a: unknown, b: unknown) {
   return (_.isNaN(a) && _.isNaN(b)) || a === b;
 }
 
-function includeChainingBehavior () {
+function includeChainingBehavior (this: Assertion): void {
   flag(this, 'contains', true);
 }
 
-function include (val, msg) {
+function include (this: Assertion, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
 
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
@@ -488,7 +633,7 @@ function include (val, msg) {
 
   switch (objType) {
     case 'string':
-      included = obj.indexOf(val) !== -1;
+      included = (obj as string).indexOf(val as string) !== -1;
       break;
 
     case 'weakset':
@@ -500,32 +645,32 @@ function include (val, msg) {
         );
       }
 
-      included = obj.has(val);
+      included = (obj as WeakSet<object>).has(val as object);
       break;
 
     case 'map':
-      obj.forEach(function (item) {
+      (obj as Map<unknown, unknown>).forEach(function (item) {
         included = included || isEql(item, val);
       });
       break;
 
     case 'set':
       if (isDeep) {
-        obj.forEach(function (item) {
+        (obj as Set<unknown>).forEach(function (item) {
           included = included || isEql(item, val);
         });
       } else {
-        included = obj.has(val);
+        included = (obj as Set<unknown>).has(val);
       }
       break;
 
     case 'array':
       if (isDeep) {
-        included = obj.some(function (item) {
+        included = (obj as Array<unknown>).some(function (item) {
           return isEql(item, val);
         })
       } else {
-        included = obj.indexOf(val) !== -1;
+        included = (obj as Array<unknown>).indexOf(val) !== -1;
       }
       break;
 
@@ -547,24 +692,24 @@ function include (val, msg) {
         );
       }
 
-      var props = Object.keys(val)
-        , firstErr = null
+      var props = Object.keys(val as object)
+        , firstErr: unknown = null
         , numErrs = 0;
 
-      props.forEach(function (prop) {
-        var propAssertion = new Assertion(obj);
+      props.forEach(function (this: Assertion, prop) {
+        var propAssertion = Assertion.create(obj);
         _.transferFlags(this, propAssertion, true);
         flag(propAssertion, 'lockSsfi', true);
 
         if (!negate || props.length === 1) {
-          propAssertion.property(prop, val[prop]);
+          propAssertion.property(prop, (val as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[prop]);
           return;
         }
 
         try {
-          propAssertion.property(prop, val[prop]);
+          propAssertion.property(prop, (val as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[prop]);
         } catch (err) {
-          if (!_.checkError.compatibleConstructor(err, AssertionError)) {
+          if (!_.checkError.compatibleConstructor(err as Error, AssertionError)) {
             throw err;
           }
           if (firstErr === null) firstErr = err;
@@ -833,7 +978,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('NaN', function () {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertExist () {
+function assertExist (this: Assertion) {
   var val = flag(this, 'object');
   this.assert(
       val !== null && val !== undefined
@@ -905,11 +1050,11 @@ Assertion.addProperty('empty', function () {
   switch (_.type(val).toLowerCase()) {
     case 'array':
     case 'string':
-      itemsCount = val.length;
+      itemsCount = (val as Array<unknown> | string).length;
       break;
     case 'map':
     case 'set':
-      itemsCount = val.size;
+      itemsCount = (val as Map<unknown, unknown> | Set<unknown>).size;
       break;
     case 'weakmap':
     case 'weakset':
@@ -919,7 +1064,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('empty', function () {
         ssfi
       );
     case 'function':
-      var msg = flagMsg + '.empty was passed a function ' + _.getName(val);
+      var msg = flagMsg + '.empty was passed a function ' + _.getName(val as Function);
       throw new AssertionError(msg.trim(), undefined, ssfi);
     default:
       if (val !== Object(val)) {
@@ -929,7 +1074,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('empty', function () {
           ssfi
         );
       }
-      itemsCount = Object.keys(val).length;
+      itemsCount = Object.keys(val as object).length;
   }
 
   this.assert(
@@ -969,7 +1114,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('empty', function () {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function checkArguments () {
+function checkArguments (this: Assertion) {
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , type = _.type(obj);
   this.assert(
@@ -1027,7 +1172,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('Arguments', checkArguments);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertEqual (val, msg) {
+function assertEqual (this: Assertion, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object');
   if (flag(this, 'deep')) {
@@ -1092,7 +1237,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('eq', assertEqual);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertEql(obj, msg) {
+function assertEql(this: Assertion, obj: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var eql = flag(this, 'eql');
   this.assert(
@@ -1151,7 +1296,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('eqls', assertEql);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertAbove (n, msg) {
+function assertAbove (this: Assertion, n: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , doLength = flag(this, 'doLength')
@@ -1160,11 +1305,11 @@ function assertAbove (n, msg) {
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi')
     , objType = _.type(obj).toLowerCase()
     , nType = _.type(n).toLowerCase()
-    , errorMessage
+    , errorMessage = 'unknown error'
     , shouldThrow = true;
 
   if (doLength && objType !== 'map' && objType !== 'set') {
-    new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
+    Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
   }
 
   if (!doLength && (objType === 'date' && nType !== 'date')) {
@@ -1187,12 +1332,12 @@ function assertAbove (n, msg) {
       , itemsCount;
     if (objType === 'map' || objType === 'set') {
       descriptor = 'size';
-      itemsCount = obj.size;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<unknown, unknown>).size;
     } else {
-      itemsCount = obj.length;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Array<unknown>).length;
     }
     this.assert(
-        itemsCount > n
+        itemsCount > (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' above #{exp} but got #{act}'
       , 'expected #{this} to not have a ' + descriptor + ' above #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1200,7 +1345,7 @@ function assertAbove (n, msg) {
     );
   } else {
     this.assert(
-        obj > n
+        (obj as number) > (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to be above #{exp}'
       , 'expected #{this} to be at most #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1256,7 +1401,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('greaterThan', assertAbove);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertLeast (n, msg) {
+function assertLeast (this: Assertion, n: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , doLength = flag(this, 'doLength')
@@ -1265,11 +1410,11 @@ function assertLeast (n, msg) {
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi')
     , objType = _.type(obj).toLowerCase()
     , nType = _.type(n).toLowerCase()
-    , errorMessage
+    , errorMessage = 'unknown error'
     , shouldThrow = true;
 
   if (doLength && objType !== 'map' && objType !== 'set') {
-    new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
+    Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
   }
 
   if (!doLength && (objType === 'date' && nType !== 'date')) {
@@ -1292,12 +1437,12 @@ function assertLeast (n, msg) {
       , itemsCount;
     if (objType === 'map' || objType === 'set') {
       descriptor = 'size';
-      itemsCount = obj.size;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<unknown, unknown>).size;
     } else {
-      itemsCount = obj.length;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Array<unknown>).length;
     }
     this.assert(
-        itemsCount >= n
+        itemsCount >= (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' at least #{exp} but got #{act}'
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' below #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1305,7 +1450,7 @@ function assertLeast (n, msg) {
     );
   } else {
     this.assert(
-        obj >= n
+        (obj as number) >= (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to be at least #{exp}'
       , 'expected #{this} to be below #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1360,7 +1505,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('greaterThanOrEqual', assertLeast);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertBelow (n, msg) {
+function assertBelow (this: Assertion, n: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , doLength = flag(this, 'doLength')
@@ -1369,11 +1514,11 @@ function assertBelow (n, msg) {
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi')
     , objType = _.type(obj).toLowerCase()
     , nType = _.type(n).toLowerCase()
-    , errorMessage
+    , errorMessage = 'unknown error'
     , shouldThrow = true;
 
   if (doLength && objType !== 'map' && objType !== 'set') {
-    new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
+    Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
   }
 
   if (!doLength && (objType === 'date' && nType !== 'date')) {
@@ -1396,12 +1541,12 @@ function assertBelow (n, msg) {
       , itemsCount;
     if (objType === 'map' || objType === 'set') {
       descriptor = 'size';
-      itemsCount = obj.size;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<unknown, unknown>).size;
     } else {
-      itemsCount = obj.length;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Array<unknown>).length;
     }
     this.assert(
-        itemsCount < n
+        itemsCount < (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' below #{exp} but got #{act}'
       , 'expected #{this} to not have a ' + descriptor + ' below #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1409,7 +1554,7 @@ function assertBelow (n, msg) {
     );
   } else {
     this.assert(
-        obj < n
+        (obj as number) < (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to be below #{exp}'
       , 'expected #{this} to be at least #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1465,7 +1610,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('lessThan', assertBelow);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertMost (n, msg) {
+function assertMost (this: Assertion, n: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , doLength = flag(this, 'doLength')
@@ -1474,11 +1619,11 @@ function assertMost (n, msg) {
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi')
     , objType = _.type(obj).toLowerCase()
     , nType = _.type(n).toLowerCase()
-    , errorMessage
+    , errorMessage = 'unknown error'
     , shouldThrow = true;
 
   if (doLength && objType !== 'map' && objType !== 'set') {
-    new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
+    Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
   }
 
   if (!doLength && (objType === 'date' && nType !== 'date')) {
@@ -1501,12 +1646,12 @@ function assertMost (n, msg) {
       , itemsCount;
     if (objType === 'map' || objType === 'set') {
       descriptor = 'size';
-      itemsCount = obj.size;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<unknown, unknown>).size;
     } else {
-      itemsCount = obj.length;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Array<unknown>).length;
     }
     this.assert(
-        itemsCount <= n
+        itemsCount <= (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' at most #{exp} but got #{act}'
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' above #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1514,7 +1659,7 @@ function assertMost (n, msg) {
     );
   } else {
     this.assert(
-        obj <= n
+        (obj as number) <= (n as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to be at most #{exp}'
       , 'expected #{this} to be above #{exp}'
       , n
@@ -1569,7 +1714,9 @@ Assertion.addMethod('lessThanOrEqual', assertMost);
  * @api public
  */
 
-Assertion.addMethod('within', function (start, finish, msg) {
+function assertWithin(start: number, finish: number, msg?: string): void;
+function assertWithin(start: Date, finish: Date, msg?: string): void;
+function assertWithin(this: Assertion, start: number | Date, finish: number | Date, msg?: string): void {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , doLength = flag(this, 'doLength')
@@ -1579,14 +1726,14 @@ Assertion.addMethod('within', function (start, finish, msg) {
     , objType = _.type(obj).toLowerCase()
     , startType = _.type(start).toLowerCase()
     , finishType = _.type(finish).toLowerCase()
-    , errorMessage
+    , errorMessage = 'unknown error'
     , shouldThrow = true
     , range = (startType === 'date' && finishType === 'date')
-        ? start.toISOString() + '..' + finish.toISOString()
+        ? (start as Date).toISOString() + '..' + (finish as Date).toISOString()
         : start + '..' + finish;
 
   if (doLength && objType !== 'map' && objType !== 'set') {
-    new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
+    Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
   }
 
   if (!doLength && (objType === 'date' && (startType !== 'date' || finishType !== 'date'))) {
@@ -1609,23 +1756,25 @@ Assertion.addMethod('within', function (start, finish, msg) {
       , itemsCount;
     if (objType === 'map' || objType === 'set') {
       descriptor = 'size';
-      itemsCount = obj.size;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<string, unknown>).size;
     } else {
-      itemsCount = obj.length;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Array<unknown>).length;
     }
     this.assert(
-        itemsCount >= start && itemsCount <= finish
+        itemsCount >= (start as number) && itemsCount <= (finish as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to have a ' + descriptor + ' within ' + range
       , 'expected #{this} to not have a ' + descriptor + ' within ' + range
     );
   } else {
     this.assert(
-        obj >= start && obj <= finish
+        (obj as number) >= (start as number) && (obj as number) <= (finish as number)
       , 'expected #{this} to be within ' + range
       , 'expected #{this} to not be within ' + range
     );
   }
-});
+}
+
+Assertion.addMethod('within', assertWithin);
 
 /**
  * ### .instanceof(constructor[, msg])
@@ -1666,7 +1815,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('within', function (start, finish, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertInstanceOf (constructor, msg) {
+function assertInstanceOf (this: Assertion, constructor: {new(): unknown}, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
 
   var target = flag(this, 'object')
@@ -1815,7 +1964,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('instanceOf', assertInstanceOf);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertProperty (name, val, msg) {
+function assertProperty (this: Assertion, name: PropertyKey, val?: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
 
   var isNested = flag(this, 'nested')
@@ -1863,9 +2012,17 @@ function assertProperty (name, val, msg) {
 
   var isDeep = flag(this, 'deep')
     , negate = flag(this, 'negate')
-    , pathInfo = isNested ? _.getPathInfo(obj, name) : null
-    , value = isNested ? pathInfo.value : obj[name]
-    , isEql = isDeep ? flag(this, 'eql') : (val1, val2) => val1 === val2;
+    , isEql = isDeep ? flag(this, 'eql') : (val1: unknown, val2: unknown): boolean => val1 === val2;
+  let pathInfo;
+  let value;
+
+  if (isNested) {
+    pathInfo = _.getPathInfo(obj, name as string);
+    value = pathInfo.value;
+  } else {
+    pathInfo = null;
+    value = (obj as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[name];
+  }
 
   var descriptor = '';
   if (isDeep) descriptor += 'deep ';
@@ -1875,7 +2032,7 @@ function assertProperty (name, val, msg) {
 
   var hasProperty;
   if (isOwn) hasProperty = Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(obj, name);
-  else if (isNested) hasProperty = pathInfo.exists;
+  else if (isNested && pathInfo) hasProperty = pathInfo.exists;
   else hasProperty = _.hasProperty(obj, name);
 
   // When performing a negated assertion for both name and val, merely having
@@ -1905,9 +2062,10 @@ function assertProperty (name, val, msg) {
 
 Assertion.addMethod('property', assertProperty);
 
-function assertOwnProperty (name, value, msg) {
+function assertOwnProperty (this: Assertion) {
   flag(this, 'own', true);
-  assertProperty.apply(this, arguments);
+  // TODO (43081j): remove this highly questionable cast
+  assertProperty.apply(this, arguments as unknown as Parameters<typeof assertProperty>);
 }
 
 Assertion.addMethod('ownProperty', assertOwnProperty);
@@ -2032,7 +2190,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('haveOwnProperty', assertOwnProperty);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertOwnPropertyDescriptor (name, descriptor, msg) {
+function assertOwnPropertyDescriptor (this: Assertion, name: PropertyKey, descriptor?: unknown, msg?: string) {
   if (typeof descriptor === 'string') {
     msg = descriptor;
     descriptor = null;
@@ -2121,11 +2279,11 @@ Assertion.addMethod('haveOwnPropertyDescriptor', assertOwnPropertyDescriptor);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertLengthChain () {
+function assertLengthChain (this: Assertion) {
   flag(this, 'doLength', true);
 }
 
-function assertLength (n, msg) {
+function assertLength (this: Assertion, n: number, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , objType = _.type(obj).toLowerCase()
@@ -2138,11 +2296,11 @@ function assertLength (n, msg) {
     case 'map':
     case 'set':
       descriptor = 'size';
-      itemsCount = obj.size;
+      itemsCount = (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<unknown, unknown>).size;
       break;
     default:
-      new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
-      itemsCount = obj.length;
+      Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property('length');
+      itemsCount = (obj as Array<unknown>).length;
   }
 
   this.assert(
@@ -2184,11 +2342,11 @@ Assertion.addChainableMethod('lengthOf', assertLength, assertLengthChain);
  * @namespace BDD
  * @api public
  */
-function assertMatch(re, msg) {
+function assertMatch(this: Assertion, re: RegExp, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object');
   this.assert(
-      re.exec(obj)
+      re.exec(obj as string)
     , 'expected #{this} to match ' + re
     , 'expected #{this} not to match ' + re
   );
@@ -2222,15 +2380,15 @@ Assertion.addMethod('matches', assertMatch);
  * @api public
  */
 
-Assertion.addMethod('string', function (str, msg) {
+Assertion.addMethod('string', function (str: string, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi');
-  new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('string');
+  Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('string');
 
   this.assert(
-      ~obj.indexOf(str)
+      ~(obj as string).indexOf(str)
     , 'expected #{this} to contain ' + _.inspect(str)
     , 'expected #{this} to not contain ' + _.inspect(str)
   );
@@ -2340,7 +2498,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('string', function (str, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertKeys (keys) {
+function assertKeys (this: Assertion, keys: Array<PropertyKey>|Record<PropertyKey, unknown>) {
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , objType = _.type(obj)
     , keysType = _.type(keys)
@@ -2348,9 +2506,10 @@ function assertKeys (keys) {
     , isDeep = flag(this, 'deep')
     , str
     , deepStr = ''
-    , actual
+    , actual: PropertyKey[] = []
     , ok = true
-    , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message');
+    , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
+    , normalisedKeys: PropertyKey[] = [];
 
   flagMsg = flagMsg ? flagMsg + ': ' : '';
   var mixedArgsMsg = flagMsg + 'when testing keys against an object or an array you must give a single Array|Object|String argument or multiple String arguments';
@@ -2360,45 +2519,50 @@ function assertKeys (keys) {
     actual = [];
 
     // Map and Set '.keys' aren't supported in IE 11. Therefore, use .forEach.
-    obj.forEach(function (val, key) { actual.push(key) });
+    (obj as Set<unknown> | Map<unknown, unknown>).forEach(function (_val, key) {
+      (actual as Array<unknown>).push(key);
+    });
 
     if (keysType !== 'Array') {
-      keys = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);
+      normalisedKeys = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);
+    } else {
+      normalisedKeys = keys as PropertyKey[];
     }
   } else {
-    actual = _.getOwnEnumerableProperties(obj);
+    actual = _.getOwnEnumerableProperties(obj as object);
 
     switch (keysType) {
       case 'Array':
         if (arguments.length > 1) {
           throw new AssertionError(mixedArgsMsg, undefined, ssfi);
         }
+        normalisedKeys = keys as PropertyKey[];
         break;
       case 'Object':
         if (arguments.length > 1) {
           throw new AssertionError(mixedArgsMsg, undefined, ssfi);
         }
-        keys = Object.keys(keys);
+        normalisedKeys = Object.keys(keys);
         break;
       default:
-        keys = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);
+        normalisedKeys = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);
     }
 
     // Only stringify non-Symbols because Symbols would become "Symbol()"
-    keys = keys.map(function (val) {
+    normalisedKeys = normalisedKeys.map(function (val) {
       return typeof val === 'symbol' ? val : String(val);
     });
   }
 
-  if (!keys.length) {
+  if (!normalisedKeys.length) {
     throw new AssertionError(flagMsg + 'keys required', undefined, ssfi);
   }
 
-  var len = keys.length
+  var len = normalisedKeys.length
     , any = flag(this, 'any')
     , all = flag(this, 'all')
-    , expected = keys
-    , isEql = isDeep ? flag(this, 'eql') : (val1, val2) => val1 === val2;
+    , expected = normalisedKeys
+    , isEql = isDeep ? flag(this, 'eql') : (val1: unknown, val2: unknown): boolean => val1 === val2;
 
   if (!any && !all) {
     all = true;
@@ -2422,24 +2586,24 @@ function assertKeys (keys) {
     });
 
     if (!flag(this, 'contains')) {
-      ok = ok && keys.length == actual.length;
+      ok = ok && normalisedKeys.length == actual.length;
     }
   }
 
   // Key string
   if (len > 1) {
-    keys = keys.map(function(key) {
+    normalisedKeys = normalisedKeys.map(function(key) {
       return _.inspect(key);
     });
-    var last = keys.pop();
+    var last = normalisedKeys.pop();
     if (all) {
-      str = keys.join(', ') + ', and ' + last;
+      str = normalisedKeys.join(', ') + ', and ' + String(last);
     }
     if (any) {
-      str = keys.join(', ') + ', or ' + last;
+      str = normalisedKeys.join(', ') + ', or ' + String(last);
     }
   } else {
-    str = _.inspect(keys[0]);
+    str = _.inspect(normalisedKeys[0]);
   }
 
   // Form
@@ -2627,22 +2791,41 @@ Assertion.addMethod('key', assertKeys);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
+function assertThrows(
+  this: Assertion,
+  errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp
+): void;
+function assertThrows(
+  this: Assertion,
+  errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+  errMsgMatcher: string | RegExp,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertThrows(
+  this: Assertion,
+  errorLikeOrMatcher: Error | Constructor<Error> | string | RegExp,
+  errMsgMatcher?: string|RegExp,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi')
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , negate = flag(this, 'negate') || false;
-  new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+  Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
 
-  if (errorLike instanceof RegExp || typeof errorLike === 'string') {
-    errMsgMatcher = errorLike;
+  let errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error> | null;
+
+  if (errorLikeOrMatcher instanceof RegExp || typeof errorLikeOrMatcher === 'string') {
+    errMsgMatcher = errorLikeOrMatcher;
     errorLike = null;
+  } else {
+    errorLike = errorLikeOrMatcher;
   }
 
   var caughtErr;
   try {
-    obj();
+    (obj as () => void)();
   } catch (err) {
     caughtErr = err;
   }
@@ -2674,14 +2857,14 @@ function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
       , errorLike && errorLike.toString()
       , (caughtErr instanceof Error ?
           caughtErr.toString() : (typeof caughtErr === 'string' ? caughtErr : caughtErr &&
-                                  _.checkError.getConstructorName(caughtErr)))
+                                  _.checkError.getConstructorName(caughtErr as Error)))
     );
   }
 
   if (errorLike && caughtErr) {
     // We should compare instances only if `errorLike` is an instance of `Error`
     if (errorLike instanceof Error) {
-      var isCompatibleInstance = _.checkError.compatibleInstance(caughtErr, errorLike);
+      var isCompatibleInstance = _.checkError.compatibleInstance(caughtErr as Error, errorLike);
 
       if (isCompatibleInstance === negate) {
         // These checks were created to ensure we won't fail too soon when we've got both args and a negate
@@ -2700,7 +2883,7 @@ function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
       }
     }
 
-    var isCompatibleConstructor = _.checkError.compatibleConstructor(caughtErr, errorLike);
+    var isCompatibleConstructor = _.checkError.compatibleConstructor(caughtErr as Error, errorLike);
     if (isCompatibleConstructor === negate) {
       if (everyArgIsDefined && negate) {
           errorLikeFail = true;
@@ -2710,7 +2893,7 @@ function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
           , 'expected #{this} to throw #{exp} but #{act} was thrown'
           , 'expected #{this} to not throw #{exp}' + (caughtErr ? ' but #{act} was thrown' : '')
           , (errorLike instanceof Error ? errorLike.toString() : errorLike && _.checkError.getConstructorName(errorLike))
-          , (caughtErr instanceof Error ? caughtErr.toString() : caughtErr && _.checkError.getConstructorName(caughtErr))
+          , (caughtErr instanceof Error ? caughtErr.toString() : caughtErr && _.checkError.getConstructorName(caughtErr as Error))
         );
       }
     }
@@ -2723,7 +2906,7 @@ function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
       placeholder = 'matching'
     }
 
-    var isCompatibleMessage = _.checkError.compatibleMessage(caughtErr, errMsgMatcher);
+    var isCompatibleMessage = _.checkError.compatibleMessage(caughtErr as Error, errMsgMatcher);
     if (isCompatibleMessage === negate) {
       if (everyArgIsDefined && negate) {
           errMsgMatcherFail = true;
@@ -2733,7 +2916,7 @@ function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
           , 'expected #{this} to throw error ' + placeholder + ' #{exp} but got #{act}'
           , 'expected #{this} to throw error not ' + placeholder + ' #{exp}'
           ,  errMsgMatcher
-          ,  _.checkError.getMessage(caughtErr)
+          ,  _.checkError.getMessage(caughtErr as Error)
         );
       }
     }
@@ -2746,7 +2929,7 @@ function assertThrows (errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
       , 'expected #{this} to throw #{exp} but #{act} was thrown'
       , 'expected #{this} to not throw #{exp}' + (caughtErr ? ' but #{act} was thrown' : '')
       , (errorLike instanceof Error ? errorLike.toString() : errorLike && _.checkError.getConstructorName(errorLike))
-      , (caughtErr instanceof Error ? caughtErr.toString() : caughtErr && _.checkError.getConstructorName(caughtErr))
+      , (caughtErr instanceof Error ? caughtErr.toString() : caughtErr && _.checkError.getConstructorName(caughtErr as Error))
     );
   }
 
@@ -2822,13 +3005,13 @@ Assertion.addMethod('Throw', assertThrows);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function respondTo (method, msg) {
+function respondTo (this: Assertion, method: PropertyKey, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , itself = flag(this, 'itself')
     , context = ('function' === typeof obj && !itself)
       ? obj.prototype[method]
-      : obj[method];
+      : (obj as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[method];
 
   this.assert(
       'function' === typeof context
@@ -2902,7 +3085,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('itself', function () {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function satisfy (matcher, msg) {
+function satisfy (this: Assertion, matcher: Function, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object');
   var result = matcher(obj);
@@ -2956,13 +3139,13 @@ Assertion.addMethod('satisfies', satisfy);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function closeTo(expected, delta, msg) {
+function closeTo(this: Assertion, expected: number, delta: number, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi');
 
-  new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('number');
+  Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('number');
   if (typeof expected !== 'number' || typeof delta !== 'number') {
     flagMsg = flagMsg ? flagMsg + ': ' : '';
     var deltaMessage = delta === undefined ? ", and a delta is required" : "";
@@ -2974,7 +3157,7 @@ function closeTo(expected, delta, msg) {
   }
 
   this.assert(
-      Math.abs(obj - expected) <= delta
+      Math.abs((obj as number) - expected) <= delta
     , 'expected #{this} to be close to ' + expected + ' +/- ' + delta
     , 'expected #{this} not to be close to ' + expected + ' +/- ' + delta
   );
@@ -2984,7 +3167,13 @@ Assertion.addMethod('closeTo', closeTo);
 Assertion.addMethod('approximately', closeTo);
 
 // Note: Duplicates are ignored if testing for inclusion instead of sameness.
-function isSubsetOf(subset, superset, cmp, contains, ordered) {
+function isSubsetOf(
+  subset: unknown[],
+  superset: unknown[],
+  cmp: ((a: unknown, b: unknown) => boolean) | undefined,
+  contains: boolean,
+  ordered: boolean
+) {
   if (!contains) {
     if (subset.length !== superset.length) return false;
     superset = superset.slice();
@@ -3081,17 +3270,17 @@ function isSubsetOf(subset, superset, cmp, contains, ordered) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-Assertion.addMethod('members', function (subset, msg) {
+Assertion.addMethod('members', function (subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var obj = flag(this, 'object')
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi');
 
-  new Assertion(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.be.an('array');
-  new Assertion(subset, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.be.an('array');
+  Assertion.create(obj, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.be.an('array');
+  Assertion.create(subset, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.be.an('array');
 
-  var contains = flag(this, 'contains');
-  var ordered = flag(this, 'ordered');
+  var contains = flag(this, 'contains') === true;
+  var ordered = flag(this, 'ordered') === true;
 
   var subject, failMsg, failNegateMsg;
 
@@ -3108,7 +3297,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('members', function (subset, msg) {
   var cmp = flag(this, 'deep') ? flag(this, 'eql') : undefined;
 
   this.assert(
-      isSubsetOf(subset, obj, cmp, contains, ordered)
+      isSubsetOf(subset, (obj as unknown[]), cmp, contains, ordered)
     , failMsg
     , failNegateMsg
     , subset
@@ -3155,7 +3344,7 @@ Assertion.addMethod('members', function (subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-function oneOf (list, msg) {
+function oneOf (this: Assertion, list: unknown[], msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
   var expected = flag(this, 'object')
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
@@ -3163,11 +3352,11 @@ function oneOf (list, msg) {
     , contains = flag(this, 'contains')
     , isDeep = flag(this, 'deep')
     , eql = flag(this, 'eql');
-  new Assertion(list, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.be.an('array');
+  Assertion.create(list, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.be.an('array');
 
   if (contains) {
     this.assert(
-      list.some(function(possibility) { return expected.indexOf(possibility) > -1 })
+      list.some(function(possibility) { return (expected as Array<unknown>).indexOf(possibility) > -1 })
       , 'expected #{this} to contain one of #{exp}'
       , 'expected #{this} to not contain one of #{exp}'
       , list
@@ -3291,26 +3480,42 @@ Assertion.addMethod('oneOf', oneOf);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertChanges (subject, prop, msg) {
+function assertChanges(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChanges(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: Function
+): void;
+function assertChanges(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: Function | object,
+  prop?: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
-  var fn = flag(this, 'object')
+  var fn = flag(this, 'object') as () => void
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi');
-  new Assertion(fn, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+  Assertion.create(fn, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
 
   var initial;
   if (!prop) {
-    new Assertion(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
-    initial = subject();
+    Assertion.create(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+    initial = (subject as () => void)();
   } else {
-    new Assertion(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property(prop);
-    initial = subject[prop];
+    Assertion.create(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property(prop);
+    initial = (subject as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[prop];
   }
 
   fn();
 
-  var final = prop === undefined || prop === null ? subject() : subject[prop];
-  var msgObj = prop === undefined || prop === null ? initial : '.' + prop;
+  var final = prop === undefined || prop === null ?
+    (subject as () => void)() : (subject as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[prop];
+  var msgObj = prop === undefined || prop === null ? initial : '.' + String(prop);
 
   // This gets flagged because of the .by(delta) assertion
   flag(this, 'deltaMsgObj', msgObj);
@@ -3408,29 +3613,45 @@ Assertion.addMethod('changes', assertChanges);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertIncreases (subject, prop, msg) {
+function assertIncreases(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: () => void
+): void;
+function assertIncreases(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertIncreases(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: object | (() => number),
+  prop?: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
-  var fn = flag(this, 'object')
+  var fn = flag(this, 'object') as () => void
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi');
-  new Assertion(fn, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+  Assertion.create(fn, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
 
   var initial;
   if (!prop) {
-    new Assertion(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
-    initial = subject();
+    Assertion.create(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+    initial = (subject as () => number)();
   } else {
-    new Assertion(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property(prop);
-    initial = subject[prop];
+    Assertion.create(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property(prop);
+    initial = (subject as Record<PropertyKey, number>)[prop];
   }
 
   // Make sure that the target is a number
-  new Assertion(initial, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('number');
+  Assertion.create(initial, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('number');
 
   fn();
 
-  var final = prop === undefined || prop === null ? subject() : subject[prop];
-  var msgObj = prop === undefined || prop === null ? initial : '.' + prop;
+  var final = prop === undefined || prop === null ?
+    (subject as () => number)() : (subject as Record<PropertyKey, number>)[prop];
+  var msgObj = prop === undefined || prop === null ? initial : '.' + String(prop);
 
   flag(this, 'deltaMsgObj', msgObj);
   flag(this, 'initialDeltaValue', initial);
@@ -3527,29 +3748,45 @@ Assertion.addMethod('increases', assertIncreases);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertDecreases (subject, prop, msg) {
+function assertDecreases(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: () => number
+): void;
+function assertDecreases(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertDecreases(
+  this: Assertion,
+  subject: object | (() => number),
+  prop?: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
-  var fn = flag(this, 'object')
+  var fn = flag(this, 'object') as () => void
     , flagMsg = flag(this, 'message')
     , ssfi = flag(this, 'ssfi');
-  new Assertion(fn, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+  Assertion.create(fn, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
 
   var initial;
   if (!prop) {
-    new Assertion(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
-    initial = subject();
+    Assertion.create(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('function');
+    initial = (subject as () => number)();
   } else {
-    new Assertion(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property(prop);
-    initial = subject[prop];
+    Assertion.create(subject, flagMsg, ssfi, true).to.have.property(prop);
+    initial = (subject as Record<PropertyKey, number>)[prop];
   }
 
   // Make sure that the target is a number
-  new Assertion(initial, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('number');
+  Assertion.create(initial, flagMsg, ssfi, true).is.a('number');
 
   fn();
 
-  var final = prop === undefined || prop === null ? subject() : subject[prop];
-  var msgObj = prop === undefined || prop === null ? initial : '.' + prop;
+  var final = prop === undefined || prop === null ?
+    (subject as () => number)() : (subject as Record<PropertyKey, number>)[prop];
+  var msgObj = prop === undefined || prop === null ? initial : '.' + String(prop);
 
   flag(this, 'deltaMsgObj', msgObj);
   flag(this, 'initialDeltaValue', initial);
@@ -3633,12 +3870,12 @@ Assertion.addMethod('decreases', assertDecreases);
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assertDelta(delta, msg) {
+function assertDelta(this: Assertion, delta: number, msg?: string) {
   if (msg) flag(this, 'message', msg);
 
   var msgObj = flag(this, 'deltaMsgObj');
-  var initial = flag(this, 'initialDeltaValue');
-  var final = flag(this, 'finalDeltaValue');
+  var initial = flag(this, 'initialDeltaValue') as number;
+  var final = flag(this, 'finalDeltaValue') as number;
   var behavior = flag(this, 'deltaBehavior');
   var realDelta = flag(this, 'realDelta');
 
@@ -3839,7 +4076,7 @@ Assertion.addProperty('frozen', function() {
  * @api public
  */
 
-Assertion.addProperty('finite', function(msg) {
+Assertion.addProperty('finite', function() {
   var obj = flag(this, 'object');
 
   this.assert(
diff --git a/lib/chai/interface/assert.js b/src/chai/interface/assert.ts
similarity index 63%
rename from lib/chai/interface/assert.js
rename to src/chai/interface/assert.ts
index 77af8eadc..965736b66 100644
--- a/lib/chai/interface/assert.js
+++ b/src/chai/interface/assert.ts
@@ -4,11 +4,356 @@
  * MIT Licensed
  */
 
-import * as chai from '../../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../chai.js';
 import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 import {flag, inspect} from '../utils/index.js';
 import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
 
+type Constructor<T> = {new(): T};
+
+export interface AssertInterface {
+  (expr: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  fail(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, message: string, operator: string): void;
+  isOk(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  ok(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotOk(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notOk(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  equal(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notEqual(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  strictEqual(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notStrictEqual(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepEqual(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepStrictEqual(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepEqual(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isAbove(val: unknown, abv: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isAtLeast(val: unknown, atlst: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isBelow(val: unknown, blw: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isAtMost(val: unknown, atmst: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isTrue(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotTrue(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isFalse(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotFalse(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNull(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotNull(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNaN(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotNaN(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  exists(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notExists(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isUndefined(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isDefined(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isFunction(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotFunction(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isObject(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotObject(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isArray(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotArray(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isString(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotString(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNumber(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotNumber(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isFinite(val: number, msg?: string): void;
+  isBoolean(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotBoolean(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  typeOf(val: unknown, type: string, msg?: string): void;
+  notTypeOf(val: unknown, type: string, msg?: string): void;
+  instanceOf(val: object, type: Constructor<unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  notInstanceOf(val: object, type: Constructor<unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  include(expr: string | Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notInclude(expr: string | Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepInclude(expr: string | Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepInclude(expr: string | Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  nestedInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notNestedInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepNestedInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepNestedInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  ownInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notOwnInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepOwnInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepOwnInclude(expr: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  match(expr: unknown, re: RegExp, msg?: string): void;
+  notMatch(expr: unknown, re: RegExp, msg?: string): void;
+  property(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string): void;
+  notProperty(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string): void;
+  propertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  ownProperty(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string): void;
+  notOwnProperty(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string): void;
+  ownPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notOwnPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepOwnPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepOwnPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  nestedProperty(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string): void;
+  notNestedProperty(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, msg?: string): void;
+  nestedPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notNestedPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  deepNestedPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notDeepNestedPropertyVal(obj: unknown, prop: PropertyKey, val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  lengthOf(expr: unknown, len: number, msg?: string): void;
+  hasAnyKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  hasAllKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  containsAllKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  doesNotHaveAnyKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  doesNotHaveAllKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  hasAnyDeepKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  hasAllDeepKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  containsAllDeepKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  doesNotHaveAnyDeepKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+  doesNotHaveAllDeepKeys(obj: unknown, keys: Array<string> | Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string): void;
+
+  Throw(
+    fn: Function,
+    errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  Throw(
+    fn: Function,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string
+  ): void;
+  throw(
+    fn: Function,
+    errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  throw(
+    fn: Function,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string
+  ): void;
+  throws(
+    fn: Function,
+    errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  throws(
+    fn: Function,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string
+  ): void;
+
+  doesNotThrow(
+    fn: Function,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string
+  ): void;
+  doesNotThrow(
+    fn: Function,
+    errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+    errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  operator(val: unknown, operator: string, val2: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  closeTo(actual: number, expected: number, delta: number, msg?: string): void;
+  approximately(actual: number, expected: number, delta: number, msg?: string): void;
+  sameMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notSameMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  sameDeepMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notSameDeepMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  sameOrderedMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notSameOrderedMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  sameDeepOrderedMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notSameDeepOrderedMembers(set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  includeMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notIncludeMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  includeDeepMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notIncludeDeepMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  includeOrderedMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notIncludeOrderedMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  includeDeepOrderedMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  notIncludeDeepOrderedMembers(superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+  oneOf(inList: unknown, list: unknown[], msg?: string): void;
+
+  changes(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  changes(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  changesBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  changesBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  doesNotChange(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+  doesNotChange(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+
+  changesButNotBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  changesButNotBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  increases(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+  increases(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+
+  increasesBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  increasesBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  doesNotIncrease(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+  doesNotIncrease(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+
+  increasesButNotBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  increasesButNotBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  decreases(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+  decreases(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+
+  decreasesBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  decreasesBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  doesNotDecrease(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+  doesNotDecrease(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+
+  doesNotDecreaseBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+  doesNotDecreaseBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): Assertion;
+
+  decreasesButNotBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: object,
+    prop: PropertyKey,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+  decreasesButNotBy(
+    fn: Function,
+    obj: () => void,
+    delta: number,
+    msg?: string
+  ): void;
+
+  ifError(val: unknown): void;
+  isExtensible(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  extensible(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotExtensible(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  notExtensible(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  isSealed(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  sealed(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotSealed(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  notSealed(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  isFrozen(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  frozen(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotFrozen(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  notFrozen(obj: object, msg?: string): void;
+  isEmpty(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  empty(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  isNotEmpty(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+  notEmpty(val: unknown, msg?: string): void;
+}
+
 /**
  * ### assert(expression, message)
  *
@@ -24,14 +369,14 @@ import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
  * @api public
  */
 
-function assert(express, errmsg) {
-  var test = new Assertion(null, null, chai.assert, true);
+const assert: AssertInterface = function assert(express: unknown, errmsg?: string) {
+  var test = Assertion.create(null, null, chai.assert, true);
   test.assert(
       express
     , errmsg
     , '[ negation message unavailable ]'
   );
-}
+} as AssertInterface;
 
 export {assert};
 
@@ -57,11 +402,11 @@ export {assert};
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.fail = function (actual, expected, message, operator) {
+assert.fail = function (actual: unknown, expected: unknown, message: string, operator: string) {
   if (arguments.length < 2) {
       // Comply with Node's fail([message]) interface
 
-      message = actual;
+      message = actual as string;
       actual = undefined;
   }
 
@@ -89,8 +434,8 @@ assert.fail = function (actual, expected, message, operator) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isOk = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isOk, true).is.ok;
+assert.isOk = assert.ok = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isOk, true).is.ok;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -109,8 +454,8 @@ assert.isOk = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotOk = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotOk, true).is.not.ok;
+assert.isNotOk = assert.notOk = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotOk, true).is.not.ok;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -128,8 +473,8 @@ assert.isNotOk = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.equal = function (act, exp, msg) {
-  var test = new Assertion(act, msg, assert.equal, true);
+assert.equal = function (act: unknown, exp: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  var test = Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.equal, true);
 
   test.assert(
       exp == flag(test, 'object')
@@ -156,8 +501,8 @@ assert.equal = function (act, exp, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
-  var test = new Assertion(act, msg, assert.notEqual, true);
+assert.notEqual = function (act: unknown, exp: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  var test = Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.notEqual, true);
 
   test.assert(
       exp != flag(test, 'object')
@@ -184,8 +529,8 @@ assert.notEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.strictEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
-  new Assertion(act, msg, assert.strictEqual, true).to.equal(exp);
+assert.strictEqual = function (act: unknown, exp: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.strictEqual, true).to.equal(exp);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -203,8 +548,8 @@ assert.strictEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notStrictEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
-  new Assertion(act, msg, assert.notStrictEqual, true).to.not.equal(exp);
+assert.notStrictEqual = function (act: unknown, exp: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.notStrictEqual, true).to.not.equal(exp);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -223,8 +568,8 @@ assert.notStrictEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepEqual = assert.deepStrictEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
-  new Assertion(act, msg, assert.deepEqual, true).to.eql(exp);
+assert.deepEqual = assert.deepStrictEqual = function (act: unknown, exp: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.deepEqual, true).to.eql(exp);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -242,8 +587,8 @@ assert.deepEqual = assert.deepStrictEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
-  new Assertion(act, msg, assert.notDeepEqual, true).to.not.eql(exp);
+assert.notDeepEqual = function (act: unknown, exp: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.notDeepEqual, true).to.not.eql(exp);
 };
 
  /**
@@ -261,8 +606,8 @@ assert.notDeepEqual = function (act, exp, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isAbove = function (val, abv, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isAbove, true).to.be.above(abv);
+assert.isAbove = function (val: unknown, abv: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isAbove, true).to.be.above(abv);
 };
 
  /**
@@ -281,8 +626,8 @@ assert.isAbove = function (val, abv, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isAtLeast = function (val, atlst, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isAtLeast, true).to.be.least(atlst);
+assert.isAtLeast = function (val: unknown, atlst?: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isAtLeast, true).to.be.least(atlst);
 };
 
  /**
@@ -300,8 +645,8 @@ assert.isAtLeast = function (val, atlst, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isBelow = function (val, blw, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isBelow, true).to.be.below(blw);
+assert.isBelow = function (val: unknown, blw: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isBelow, true).to.be.below(blw);
 };
 
  /**
@@ -320,8 +665,8 @@ assert.isBelow = function (val, blw, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isAtMost = function (val, atmst, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isAtMost, true).to.be.most(atmst);
+assert.isAtMost = function (val: unknown, atmst: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isAtMost, true).to.be.most(atmst);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -339,8 +684,8 @@ assert.isAtMost = function (val, atmst, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isTrue = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isTrue, true).is['true'];
+assert.isTrue = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isTrue, true).is['true'];
 };
 
 /**
@@ -358,8 +703,8 @@ assert.isTrue = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotTrue = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotTrue, true).to.not.equal(true);
+assert.isNotTrue = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotTrue, true).to.not.equal(true);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -377,8 +722,8 @@ assert.isNotTrue = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isFalse = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isFalse, true).is['false'];
+assert.isFalse = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isFalse, true).is['false'];
 };
 
 /**
@@ -396,8 +741,8 @@ assert.isFalse = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotFalse = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotFalse, true).to.not.equal(false);
+assert.isNotFalse = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotFalse, true).to.not.equal(false);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -414,8 +759,8 @@ assert.isNotFalse = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNull = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNull, true).to.equal(null);
+assert.isNull = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNull, true).to.equal(null);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -433,8 +778,8 @@ assert.isNull = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotNull = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotNull, true).to.not.equal(null);
+assert.isNotNull = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotNull, true).to.not.equal(null);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -451,8 +796,8 @@ assert.isNotNull = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNaN = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNaN, true).to.be.NaN;
+assert.isNaN = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNaN, true).to.be.NaN;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -468,8 +813,8 @@ assert.isNaN = function (val, msg) {
  * @namespace Assert
  * @api public
  */
-assert.isNotNaN = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotNaN, true).not.to.be.NaN;
+assert.isNotNaN = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotNaN, true).not.to.be.NaN;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -488,8 +833,8 @@ assert.isNotNaN = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.exists = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.exists, true).to.exist;
+assert.exists = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.exists, true).to.exist;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -510,8 +855,8 @@ assert.exists = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notExists = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.notExists, true).to.not.exist;
+assert.notExists = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.notExists, true).to.not.exist;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -529,8 +874,8 @@ assert.notExists = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isUndefined = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isUndefined, true).to.equal(undefined);
+assert.isUndefined = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isUndefined, true).to.equal(undefined);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -548,8 +893,8 @@ assert.isUndefined = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isDefined = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isDefined, true).to.not.equal(undefined);
+assert.isDefined = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isDefined, true).to.not.equal(undefined);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -567,8 +912,8 @@ assert.isDefined = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isFunction = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isFunction, true).to.be.a('function');
+assert.isFunction = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isFunction, true).to.be.a('function');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -586,8 +931,8 @@ assert.isFunction = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotFunction = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotFunction, true).to.not.be.a('function');
+assert.isNotFunction = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotFunction, true).to.not.be.a('function');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -606,8 +951,8 @@ assert.isNotFunction = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isObject = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isObject, true).to.be.a('object');
+assert.isObject = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isObject, true).to.be.a('object');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -626,8 +971,8 @@ assert.isObject = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotObject = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotObject, true).to.not.be.a('object');
+assert.isNotObject = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotObject, true).to.not.be.a('object');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -645,8 +990,8 @@ assert.isNotObject = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isArray = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isArray, true).to.be.an('array');
+assert.isArray = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isArray, true).to.be.an('array');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -664,8 +1009,8 @@ assert.isArray = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotArray = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotArray, true).to.not.be.an('array');
+assert.isNotArray = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotArray, true).to.not.be.an('array');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -683,8 +1028,8 @@ assert.isNotArray = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isString = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isString, true).to.be.a('string');
+assert.isString = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isString, true).to.be.a('string');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -702,8 +1047,8 @@ assert.isString = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotString = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotString, true).to.not.be.a('string');
+assert.isNotString = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotString, true).to.not.be.a('string');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -721,8 +1066,8 @@ assert.isNotString = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNumber = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNumber, true).to.be.a('number');
+assert.isNumber = function (val: number, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNumber, true).to.be.a('number');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -740,8 +1085,8 @@ assert.isNumber = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotNumber = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotNumber, true).to.not.be.a('number');
+assert.isNotNumber = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotNumber, true).to.not.be.a('number');
 };
 
  /**
@@ -761,8 +1106,8 @@ assert.isNotNumber = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isFinite = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isFinite, true).to.be.finite;
+assert.isFinite = function (val: number, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isFinite, true).to.be.finite;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -783,8 +1128,8 @@ assert.isFinite = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isBoolean = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isBoolean, true).to.be.a('boolean');
+assert.isBoolean = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isBoolean, true).to.be.a('boolean');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -805,8 +1150,8 @@ assert.isBoolean = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotBoolean = function (val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotBoolean, true).to.not.be.a('boolean');
+assert.isNotBoolean = function (val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotBoolean, true).to.not.be.a('boolean');
 };
 
 /**
@@ -830,8 +1175,8 @@ assert.isNotBoolean = function (val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.typeOf = function (val, type, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.typeOf, true).to.be.a(type);
+assert.typeOf = function (val: unknown, type: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.typeOf, true).to.be.a(type);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -850,8 +1195,8 @@ assert.typeOf = function (val, type, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notTypeOf = function (val, type, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.notTypeOf, true).to.not.be.a(type);
+assert.notTypeOf = function (val: unknown, type: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.notTypeOf, true).to.not.be.a(type);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -872,8 +1217,8 @@ assert.notTypeOf = function (val, type, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.instanceOf = function (val, type, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.instanceOf, true).to.be.instanceOf(type);
+assert.instanceOf = function (val: object, type: Constructor<unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.instanceOf, true).to.be.instanceOf(type);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -894,8 +1239,8 @@ assert.instanceOf = function (val, type, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notInstanceOf = function (val, type, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.notInstanceOf, true)
+assert.notInstanceOf = function (val: object, type: Constructor<unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.notInstanceOf, true)
     .to.not.be.instanceOf(type);
 };
 
@@ -930,8 +1275,8 @@ assert.notInstanceOf = function (val, type, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.include = function (exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.include, true).include(inc);
+assert.include = function (exp: string|Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.include, true).include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -966,8 +1311,8 @@ assert.include = function (exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notInclude, true).not.include(inc);
+assert.notInclude = function (exp: string|Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notInclude, true).not.include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -991,8 +1336,8 @@ assert.notInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.deepInclude, true).deep.include(inc);
+assert.deepInclude = function (exp: string|Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.deepInclude, true).deep.include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1016,8 +1361,8 @@ assert.deepInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notDeepInclude, true).not.deep.include(inc);
+assert.notDeepInclude = function (exp: string|Array<string>, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notDeepInclude, true).not.deep.include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1041,8 +1386,8 @@ assert.notDeepInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.nestedInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.nestedInclude, true).nested.include(inc);
+assert.nestedInclude = function (exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.nestedInclude, true).nested.include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1066,8 +1411,8 @@ assert.nestedInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notNestedInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notNestedInclude, true)
+assert.notNestedInclude = function (exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notNestedInclude, true)
     .not.nested.include(inc);
 };
 
@@ -1092,8 +1437,8 @@ assert.notNestedInclude = function (exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepNestedInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.deepNestedInclude, true)
+assert.deepNestedInclude = function(exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.deepNestedInclude, true)
     .deep.nested.include(inc);
 };
 
@@ -1118,8 +1463,8 @@ assert.deepNestedInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepNestedInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notDeepNestedInclude, true)
+assert.notDeepNestedInclude = function(exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notDeepNestedInclude, true)
     .not.deep.nested.include(inc);
 };
 
@@ -1140,8 +1485,8 @@ assert.notDeepNestedInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.ownInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.ownInclude, true).own.include(inc);
+assert.ownInclude = function(exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.ownInclude, true).own.include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1163,8 +1508,8 @@ assert.ownInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notOwnInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notOwnInclude, true).not.own.include(inc);
+assert.notOwnInclude = function(exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notOwnInclude, true).not.own.include(inc);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1184,8 +1529,8 @@ assert.notOwnInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepOwnInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.deepOwnInclude, true)
+assert.deepOwnInclude = function(exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.deepOwnInclude, true)
     .deep.own.include(inc);
 };
 
@@ -1206,8 +1551,8 @@ assert.deepOwnInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepOwnInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notDeepOwnInclude, true)
+assert.notDeepOwnInclude = function(exp: unknown, inc: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notDeepOwnInclude, true)
     .not.deep.own.include(inc);
 };
 
@@ -1226,8 +1571,8 @@ assert.notDeepOwnInclude = function(exp, inc, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.match = function (exp, re, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.match, true).to.match(re);
+assert.match = function (exp: unknown, re: RegExp, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.match, true).to.match(re);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1245,8 +1590,8 @@ assert.match = function (exp, re, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notMatch = function (exp, re, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.notMatch, true).to.not.match(re);
+assert.notMatch = function (exp: unknown, re: RegExp, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.notMatch, true).to.not.match(re);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1266,8 +1611,8 @@ assert.notMatch = function (exp, re, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.property = function (obj, prop, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.property, true).to.have.property(prop);
+assert.property = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.property, true).to.have.property(prop);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1286,8 +1631,8 @@ assert.property = function (obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notProperty, true)
+assert.notProperty = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notProperty, true)
     .to.not.have.property(prop);
 };
 
@@ -1309,8 +1654,8 @@ assert.notProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.propertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.propertyVal, true)
+assert.propertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.propertyVal, true)
     .to.have.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1333,8 +1678,8 @@ assert.propertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notPropertyVal, true)
+assert.notPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notPropertyVal, true)
     .to.not.have.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1355,8 +1700,8 @@ assert.notPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.deepPropertyVal, true)
+assert.deepPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.deepPropertyVal, true)
     .to.have.deep.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1379,8 +1724,8 @@ assert.deepPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notDeepPropertyVal, true)
+assert.notDeepPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notDeepPropertyVal, true)
     .to.not.have.deep.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1399,8 +1744,8 @@ assert.notDeepPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.ownProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.ownProperty, true)
+assert.ownProperty = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.ownProperty, true)
     .to.have.own.property(prop);
 };
 
@@ -1420,8 +1765,8 @@ assert.ownProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notOwnProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notOwnProperty, true)
+assert.notOwnProperty = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notOwnProperty, true)
     .to.not.have.own.property(prop);
 };
 
@@ -1442,8 +1787,8 @@ assert.notOwnProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.ownPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.ownPropertyVal, true)
+assert.ownPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, value: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.ownPropertyVal, true)
     .to.have.own.property(prop, value);
 };
 
@@ -1465,8 +1810,8 @@ assert.ownPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notOwnPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notOwnPropertyVal, true)
+assert.notOwnPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, value: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notOwnPropertyVal, true)
     .to.not.have.own.property(prop, value);
 };
 
@@ -1487,8 +1832,8 @@ assert.notOwnPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepOwnPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.deepOwnPropertyVal, true)
+assert.deepOwnPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, value: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.deepOwnPropertyVal, true)
     .to.have.deep.own.property(prop, value);
 };
 
@@ -1512,8 +1857,8 @@ assert.deepOwnPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepOwnPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notDeepOwnPropertyVal, true)
+assert.notDeepOwnPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, value: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notDeepOwnPropertyVal, true)
     .to.not.have.deep.own.property(prop, value);
 };
 
@@ -1534,8 +1879,8 @@ assert.notDeepOwnPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, value, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.nestedProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.nestedProperty, true)
+assert.nestedProperty = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.nestedProperty, true)
     .to.have.nested.property(prop);
 };
 
@@ -1556,8 +1901,8 @@ assert.nestedProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notNestedProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notNestedProperty, true)
+assert.notNestedProperty = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notNestedProperty, true)
     .to.not.have.nested.property(prop);
 };
 
@@ -1579,8 +1924,8 @@ assert.notNestedProperty = function (obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.nestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.nestedPropertyVal, true)
+assert.nestedPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.nestedPropertyVal, true)
     .to.have.nested.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1603,8 +1948,8 @@ assert.nestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notNestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notNestedPropertyVal, true)
+assert.notNestedPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notNestedPropertyVal, true)
     .to.not.have.nested.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1626,8 +1971,8 @@ assert.notNestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.deepNestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.deepNestedPropertyVal, true)
+assert.deepNestedPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.deepNestedPropertyVal, true)
     .to.have.deep.nested.property(prop, val);
 };
 
@@ -1651,8 +1996,8 @@ assert.deepNestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notDeepNestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.notDeepNestedPropertyVal, true)
+assert.notDeepNestedPropertyVal = function (obj: unknown, prop: string, val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.notDeepNestedPropertyVal, true)
     .to.not.have.deep.nested.property(prop, val);
 }
 
@@ -1674,8 +2019,8 @@ assert.notDeepNestedPropertyVal = function (obj, prop, val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.lengthOf = function (exp, len, msg) {
-  new Assertion(exp, msg, assert.lengthOf, true).to.have.lengthOf(len);
+assert.lengthOf = function (exp: unknown, len: number, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(exp, msg, assert.lengthOf, true).to.have.lengthOf(len);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -1698,8 +2043,8 @@ assert.lengthOf = function (exp, len, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.hasAnyKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.hasAnyKeys, true).to.have.any.keys(keys);
+assert.hasAnyKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: Array<string>|Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.hasAnyKeys, true).to.have.any.keys(keys);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -1722,8 +2067,8 @@ assert.hasAnyKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.hasAllKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.hasAllKeys, true).to.have.all.keys(keys);
+assert.hasAllKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: string[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.hasAllKeys, true).to.have.all.keys(keys);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -1750,8 +2095,8 @@ assert.hasAllKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.containsAllKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.containsAllKeys, true)
+assert.containsAllKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: string[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.containsAllKeys, true)
     .to.contain.all.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1775,8 +2120,8 @@ assert.containsAllKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotHaveAnyKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAnyKeys, true)
+assert.doesNotHaveAnyKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: string[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAnyKeys, true)
     .to.not.have.any.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1800,8 +2145,8 @@ assert.doesNotHaveAnyKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotHaveAllKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAllKeys, true)
+assert.doesNotHaveAllKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: string[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAllKeys, true)
     .to.not.have.all.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1829,8 +2174,8 @@ assert.doesNotHaveAllKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.hasAnyDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.hasAnyDeepKeys, true)
+assert.hasAnyDeepKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: Array<string>|Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.hasAnyDeepKeys, true)
     .to.have.any.deep.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1856,8 +2201,8 @@ assert.hasAnyDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.hasAllDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.hasAllDeepKeys, true)
+assert.hasAllDeepKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: Array<string>|Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.hasAllDeepKeys, true)
     .to.have.all.deep.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1883,8 +2228,8 @@ assert.hasAllDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.containsAllDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.containsAllDeepKeys, true)
+assert.containsAllDeepKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: Array<string>|Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.containsAllDeepKeys, true)
     .to.contain.all.deep.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1910,8 +2255,8 @@ assert.containsAllDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotHaveAnyDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAnyDeepKeys, true)
+assert.doesNotHaveAnyDeepKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: Array<string>|Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAnyDeepKeys, true)
     .to.not.have.any.deep.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1937,8 +2282,8 @@ assert.doesNotHaveAnyDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotHaveAllDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAllDeepKeys, true)
+assert.doesNotHaveAllDeepKeys = function (obj: unknown, keys: Array<string>|Record<string, unknown>, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.doesNotHaveAllDeepKeys, true)
     .to.not.have.all.deep.keys(keys);
 }
 
@@ -1973,17 +2318,37 @@ assert.doesNotHaveAllDeepKeys = function (obj, keys, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.throws = function (fn, errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
-  if ('string' === typeof errorLike || errorLike instanceof RegExp) {
-    errMsgMatcher = errorLike;
-    errorLike = null;
+function assertThrows(
+  fn: Function,
+  errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+  errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string,
+  msg?: string
+): unknown;
+function assertThrows(
+  fn: Function,
+  errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string
+): unknown;
+function assertThrows(
+  fn: Function,
+  errorOrMatcher: Error | Constructor<Error> | RegExp | string,
+  errMsgMatcher?: RegExp | string,
+  msg?: string
+): unknown {
+  let assertErr: Assertion;
+
+  if ('string' === typeof errorOrMatcher || errorOrMatcher instanceof RegExp) {
+    assertErr = Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertThrows, true)
+      .to.throw(errorOrMatcher);
+  } else {
+    assertErr = Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertThrows, true)
+      .to.throw(errorOrMatcher, errMsgMatcher as RegExp | string);
   }
 
-  var assertErr = new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.throws, true)
-    .to.throw(errorLike, errMsgMatcher);
   return flag(assertErr, 'object');
 };
 
+assert.throws = assert.Throw = assert.throw = assertThrows;
+
 /**
  * ### .doesNotThrow(fn, [errorLike/string/regexp], [string/regexp], [message])
  *
@@ -2013,16 +2378,33 @@ assert.throws = function (fn, errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotThrow = function (fn, errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
-  if ('string' === typeof errorLike || errorLike instanceof RegExp) {
-    errMsgMatcher = errorLike;
-    errorLike = null;
+function assertDoesNotThrow(
+  fn: Function,
+  errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string
+): void;
+function assertDoesNotThrow(
+  fn: Function,
+  errorLike: Error | Constructor<Error>,
+  errMsgMatcher: RegExp | string,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertDoesNotThrow(
+  fn: Function,
+  errorOrMatcher: Error | Constructor<Error> | RegExp | string,
+  errMsgMatcher?: RegExp | string,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
+  if ('string' === typeof errorOrMatcher || errorOrMatcher instanceof RegExp) {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotThrow, true)
+      .to.not.throw(errorOrMatcher);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotThrow, true)
+      .to.not.throw(errorOrMatcher, errMsgMatcher as RegExp | string);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.doesNotThrow, true)
-    .to.not.throw(errorLike, errMsgMatcher);
 };
 
+assert.doesNotThrow = assertDoesNotThrow;
+
 /**
  * ### .operator(val1, operator, val2, [message])
  *
@@ -2040,7 +2422,7 @@ assert.doesNotThrow = function (fn, errorLike, errMsgMatcher, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.operator = function (val, operator, val2, msg) {
+assert.operator = function (val: unknown, operator: string, val2: unknown, msg?: string) {
   var ok;
   switch(operator) {
     case '==':
@@ -2050,16 +2432,16 @@ assert.operator = function (val, operator, val2, msg) {
       ok = val === val2;
       break;
     case '>':
-      ok = val > val2;
+      ok = (val as number) > (val2 as number);
       break;
     case '>=':
-      ok = val >= val2;
+      ok = (val as number) >= (val2 as number);
       break;
     case '<':
-      ok = val < val2;
+      ok = (val as number) < (val2 as number);
       break;
     case '<=':
-      ok = val <= val2;
+      ok = (val as number) <= (val2 as number);
       break;
     case '!=':
       ok = val != val2;
@@ -2075,7 +2457,7 @@ assert.operator = function (val, operator, val2, msg) {
         assert.operator
       );
   }
-  var test = new Assertion(ok, msg, assert.operator, true);
+  var test = Assertion.create(ok, msg, assert.operator, true);
   test.assert(
       true === flag(test, 'object')
     , 'expected ' + inspect(val) + ' to be ' + operator + ' ' + inspect(val2)
@@ -2098,8 +2480,8 @@ assert.operator = function (val, operator, val2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.closeTo = function (act, exp, delta, msg) {
-  new Assertion(act, msg, assert.closeTo, true).to.be.closeTo(exp, delta);
+assert.closeTo = function (act: number, exp: number, delta: number, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.closeTo, true).to.be.closeTo(exp, delta);
 };
 
 /**
@@ -2118,8 +2500,8 @@ assert.closeTo = function (act, exp, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.approximately = function (act, exp, delta, msg) {
-  new Assertion(act, msg, assert.approximately, true)
+assert.approximately = function (act: number, exp: number, delta: number, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(act, msg, assert.approximately, true)
     .to.be.approximately(exp, delta);
 };
 
@@ -2139,8 +2521,8 @@ assert.approximately = function (act, exp, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.sameMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.sameMembers, true)
+assert.sameMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.sameMembers, true)
     .to.have.same.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2160,8 +2542,8 @@ assert.sameMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notSameMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.notSameMembers, true)
+assert.notSameMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.notSameMembers, true)
     .to.not.have.same.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2181,8 +2563,8 @@ assert.notSameMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.sameDeepMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.sameDeepMembers, true)
+assert.sameDeepMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.sameDeepMembers, true)
     .to.have.same.deep.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2202,8 +2584,8 @@ assert.sameDeepMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notSameDeepMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.notSameDeepMembers, true)
+assert.notSameDeepMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.notSameDeepMembers, true)
     .to.not.have.same.deep.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2223,8 +2605,8 @@ assert.notSameDeepMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.sameOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.sameOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.sameOrderedMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.sameOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.have.same.ordered.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2244,8 +2626,8 @@ assert.sameOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notSameOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.notSameOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.notSameOrderedMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.notSameOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.not.have.same.ordered.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2265,8 +2647,8 @@ assert.notSameOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.sameDeepOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.sameDeepOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.sameDeepOrderedMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.sameDeepOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.have.same.deep.ordered.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2287,8 +2669,8 @@ assert.sameDeepOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notSameDeepOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
-  new Assertion(set1, msg, assert.notSameDeepOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.notSameDeepOrderedMembers = function (set1: unknown[], set2: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(set1, msg, assert.notSameDeepOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.not.have.same.deep.ordered.members(set2);
 }
 
@@ -2308,8 +2690,8 @@ assert.notSameDeepOrderedMembers = function (set1, set2, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.includeMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.includeMembers, true)
+assert.includeMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.includeMembers, true)
     .to.include.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2329,8 +2711,8 @@ assert.includeMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notIncludeMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeMembers, true)
+assert.notIncludeMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeMembers, true)
     .to.not.include.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2350,8 +2732,8 @@ assert.notIncludeMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.includeDeepMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.includeDeepMembers, true)
+assert.includeDeepMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.includeDeepMembers, true)
     .to.include.deep.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2371,8 +2753,8 @@ assert.includeDeepMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notIncludeDeepMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeDeepMembers, true)
+assert.notIncludeDeepMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeDeepMembers, true)
     .to.not.include.deep.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2393,8 +2775,8 @@ assert.notIncludeDeepMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.includeOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.includeOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.includeOrderedMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.includeOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.include.ordered.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2416,8 +2798,8 @@ assert.includeOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notIncludeOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.notIncludeOrderedMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.not.include.ordered.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2438,8 +2820,8 @@ assert.notIncludeOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.includeDeepOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.includeDeepOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.includeDeepOrderedMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.includeDeepOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.include.deep.ordered.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2462,8 +2844,8 @@ assert.includeDeepOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.notIncludeDeepOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
-  new Assertion(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeDeepOrderedMembers, true)
+assert.notIncludeDeepOrderedMembers = function (superset: unknown[], subset: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(superset, msg, assert.notIncludeDeepOrderedMembers, true)
     .to.not.include.deep.ordered.members(subset);
 }
 
@@ -2482,8 +2864,8 @@ assert.notIncludeDeepOrderedMembers = function (superset, subset, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.oneOf = function (inList, list, msg) {
-  new Assertion(inList, msg, assert.oneOf, true).to.be.oneOf(list);
+assert.oneOf = function (inList: unknown, list: unknown[], msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(inList, msg, assert.oneOf, true).to.be.oneOf(list);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -2504,15 +2886,32 @@ assert.oneOf = function (inList, list, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.changes = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
+function assertChanges(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChanges(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChanges(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  propOrMsg?: PropertyKey | string,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 3 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    msg = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, propOrMsg as string, assertChanges, true).to.change(obj);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertChanges, true).to.change(obj, propOrMsg as PropertyKey);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.changes, true).to.change(obj, prop);
 }
 
+assert.changes = assertChanges;
+
  /**
  * ### .changesBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2532,20 +2931,40 @@ assert.changes = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.changesBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertChangesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChangesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChangesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertChangesBy, true)
+      .to.change(obj).by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertChangesBy, true)
+      .to.change(obj as Function).by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertChangesBy, true)
+      .to.change(obj as object, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.changesBy, true)
-    .to.change(obj, prop).by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.changesBy = assertChangesBy;
+
  /**
  * ### .doesNotChange(function, object, property, [message])
  *
@@ -2564,16 +2983,34 @@ assert.changesBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotChange = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
+function assertDoesNotChange(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotChange(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotChange(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  propOrMsg?: PropertyKey | string,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion {
   if (arguments.length === 3 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    msg = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, propOrMsg as string, assertDoesNotChange, true)
+      .to.not.change(obj);
+  } else {
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotChange, true)
+      .to.not.change(obj as object, propOrMsg as PropertyKey);
   }
-
-  return new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.doesNotChange, true)
-    .to.not.change(obj, prop);
 }
 
+assert.doesNotChange = assertDoesNotChange;
+
 /**
  * ### .changesButNotBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2593,20 +3030,40 @@ assert.doesNotChange = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.changesButNotBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertChangesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChangesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertChangesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertChangesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.change(obj).but.not.by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertChangesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.change(obj as Function).but.not.by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertChangesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.change(obj as object, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).but.not.by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.changesButNotBy, true)
-    .to.change(obj, prop).but.not.by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.changesButNotBy = assertChangesButNotBy;
+
 /**
  * ### .increases(function, object, property, [message])
  *
@@ -2625,16 +3082,34 @@ assert.changesButNotBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.increases = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
+function assertIncreases(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertIncreases(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertIncreases(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  propOrMsg?: PropertyKey | string,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion {
   if (arguments.length === 3 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    msg = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, propOrMsg as string, assertIncreases, true)
+      .to.increase(obj);
+  } else {
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertIncreases, true)
+      .to.increase(obj, propOrMsg as PropertyKey);
   }
-
-  return new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.increases, true)
-    .to.increase(obj, prop);
 }
 
+assert.increases = assertIncreases;
+
 /**
  * ### .increasesBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2654,20 +3129,40 @@ assert.increases = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.increasesBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertIncreasesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertIncreasesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertIncreasesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertIncreasesBy, true)
+      .to.increase(obj).by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertIncreasesBy, true)
+      .to.increase(obj as Function).by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertIncreasesBy, true)
+      .to.increase(obj, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.increasesBy, true)
-    .to.increase(obj, prop).by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.increasesBy = assertIncreasesBy;
+
 /**
  * ### .doesNotIncrease(function, object, property, [message])
  *
@@ -2686,16 +3181,34 @@ assert.increasesBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotIncrease = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
+function assertDoesNotIncrease(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotIncrease(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotIncrease(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  propOrMsg?: PropertyKey | string,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion {
   if (arguments.length === 3 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    msg = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, propOrMsg as string, assertDoesNotIncrease, true)
+      .to.not.increase(obj);
+  } else {
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotIncrease, true)
+      .to.not.increase(obj, propOrMsg as PropertyKey);
   }
-
-  return new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.doesNotIncrease, true)
-    .to.not.increase(obj, prop);
 }
 
+assert.doesNotIncrease = assertDoesNotIncrease;
+
 /**
  * ### .increasesButNotBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2715,20 +3228,40 @@ assert.doesNotIncrease = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.increasesButNotBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertIncreasesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertIncreasesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertIncreasesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertIncreasesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.increase(obj).but.not.by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertIncreasesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.increase(obj as Function).but.not.by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertIncreasesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.increase(obj, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).but.not.by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.increasesButNotBy, true)
-    .to.increase(obj, prop).but.not.by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.increasesButNotBy = assertIncreasesButNotBy;
+
 /**
  * ### .decreases(function, object, property, [message])
  *
@@ -2747,16 +3280,34 @@ assert.increasesButNotBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.decreases = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
+function assertDecreases(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDecreases(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDecreases(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  propOrMsg?: PropertyKey | string,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion {
   if (arguments.length === 3 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    msg = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, propOrMsg as string, assertDecreases, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj);
+  } else {
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDecreases, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj, propOrMsg as PropertyKey);
   }
-
-  return new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.decreases, true)
-    .to.decrease(obj, prop);
 }
 
+assert.decreases = assertDecreases;
+
 /**
  * ### .decreasesBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2776,20 +3327,40 @@ assert.decreases = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.decreasesBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertDecreasesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertDecreasesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertDecreasesBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertDecreasesBy, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj).by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDecreasesBy, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj as Function).by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDecreasesBy, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.decreasesBy, true)
-    .to.decrease(obj, prop).by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.decreasesBy = assertDecreasesBy;
+
 /**
  * ### .doesNotDecrease(function, object, property, [message])
  *
@@ -2808,16 +3379,34 @@ assert.decreasesBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotDecrease = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
+function assertDoesNotDecrease(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotDecrease(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotDecrease(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  propOrMsg?: PropertyKey | string,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion {
   if (arguments.length === 3 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    msg = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, propOrMsg as string, assertDoesNotDecrease, true)
+      .to.not.decrease(obj);
+  } else {
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotDecrease, true)
+      .to.not.decrease(obj, propOrMsg as PropertyKey);
   }
-
-  return new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.doesNotDecrease, true)
-    .to.not.decrease(obj, prop);
 }
 
+assert.doesNotDecrease = assertDoesNotDecrease;
+
 /**
  * ### .doesNotDecreaseBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2837,20 +3426,40 @@ assert.doesNotDecrease = function (fn, obj, prop, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.doesNotDecreaseBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertDoesNotDecreaseBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotDecreaseBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion;
+function assertDoesNotDecreaseBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): Assertion {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertDoesNotDecreaseBy, true)
+      .to.not.decrease(obj as Function).by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotDecreaseBy, true)
+      .to.not.decrease(obj as Function).by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    return Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDoesNotDecreaseBy, true)
+      .to.not.decrease(obj, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  return new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.doesNotDecreaseBy, true)
-    .to.not.decrease(obj, prop).by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.doesNotDecreaseBy = assertDoesNotDecreaseBy;
+
 /**
  * ### .decreasesButNotBy(function, object, property, delta, [message])
  *
@@ -2870,20 +3479,40 @@ assert.doesNotDecreaseBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.decreasesButNotBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
+function assertDecreasesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object,
+  prop: PropertyKey,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertDecreasesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: () => void,
+  delta: number,
+  msg?: string
+): void;
+function assertDecreasesButNotBy(
+  fn: Function,
+  obj: object | (() => void),
+  deltaOrProp: number | PropertyKey,
+  msgOrDelta?: string | number,
+  msg?: string
+): void {
   if (arguments.length === 4 && typeof obj === 'function') {
-    var tmpMsg = delta;
-    delta = prop;
-    msg = tmpMsg;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msgOrDelta as string, assertDecreasesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj).but.not.by(deltaOrProp as number);
   } else if (arguments.length === 3) {
-    delta = prop;
-    prop = null;
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDecreasesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj as Function).but.not.by(deltaOrProp as number);
+  } else {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg, assertDecreasesButNotBy, true)
+      .to.decrease(obj, deltaOrProp as PropertyKey).but.not.by(msgOrDelta as number);
   }
-
-  new Assertion(fn, msg, assert.decreasesButNotBy, true)
-    .to.decrease(obj, prop).but.not.by(delta);
 }
 
+assert.decreasesButNotBy = assertDecreasesButNotBy;
+
 /*!
  * ### .ifError(object)
  *
@@ -2900,7 +3529,7 @@ assert.decreasesButNotBy = function (fn, obj, prop, delta, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.ifError = function (val) {
+assert.ifError = function (val: unknown) {
   if (val) {
     throw(val);
   }
@@ -2921,8 +3550,8 @@ assert.ifError = function (val) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isExtensible = function (obj, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.isExtensible, true).to.be.extensible;
+assert.isExtensible = assert.extensible = function (obj: object, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.isExtensible, true).to.be.extensible;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -2946,8 +3575,8 @@ assert.isExtensible = function (obj, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotExtensible = function (obj, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.isNotExtensible, true).to.not.be.extensible;
+assert.isNotExtensible = assert.notExtensible = function (obj: object, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.isNotExtensible, true).to.not.be.extensible;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -2970,8 +3599,8 @@ assert.isNotExtensible = function (obj, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isSealed = function (obj, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.isSealed, true).to.be.sealed;
+assert.isSealed = assert.sealed = function (obj: object, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.isSealed, true).to.be.sealed;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -2989,8 +3618,8 @@ assert.isSealed = function (obj, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotSealed = function (obj, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.isNotSealed, true).to.not.be.sealed;
+assert.isNotSealed = assert.notSealed = function (obj: object, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.isNotSealed, true).to.not.be.sealed;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -3010,8 +3639,8 @@ assert.isNotSealed = function (obj, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isFrozen = function (obj, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.isFrozen, true).to.be.frozen;
+assert.isFrozen = assert.frozen = function (obj: object, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.isFrozen, true).to.be.frozen;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -3029,8 +3658,8 @@ assert.isFrozen = function (obj, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotFrozen = function (obj, msg) {
-  new Assertion(obj, msg, assert.isNotFrozen, true).to.not.be.frozen;
+assert.isNotFrozen = assert.notFrozen = function (obj: object, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(obj, msg, assert.isNotFrozen, true).to.not.be.frozen;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -3055,8 +3684,8 @@ assert.isNotFrozen = function (obj, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isEmpty = function(val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isEmpty, true).to.be.empty;
+assert.isEmpty = assert.empty = function(val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isEmpty, true).to.be.empty;
 };
 
 /**
@@ -3081,27 +3710,6 @@ assert.isEmpty = function(val, msg) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-assert.isNotEmpty = function(val, msg) {
-  new Assertion(val, msg, assert.isNotEmpty, true).to.not.be.empty;
+assert.isNotEmpty = assert.notEmpty = function(val: unknown, msg?: string) {
+  Assertion.create(val, msg, assert.isNotEmpty, true).to.not.be.empty;
 };
-
-/*!
- * Aliases.
- */
-
-(function alias(name, as){
-  assert[as] = assert[name];
-  return alias;
-})
-('isOk', 'ok')
-('isNotOk', 'notOk')
-('throws', 'throw')
-('throws', 'Throw')
-('isExtensible', 'extensible')
-('isNotExtensible', 'notExtensible')
-('isSealed', 'sealed')
-('isNotSealed', 'notSealed')
-('isFrozen', 'frozen')
-('isNotFrozen', 'notFrozen')
-('isEmpty', 'empty')
-('isNotEmpty', 'notEmpty');
diff --git a/src/chai/interface/expect.ts b/src/chai/interface/expect.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..23fa63b77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/chai/interface/expect.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+/*!
+ * chai
+ * Copyright(c) 2011-2014 Jake Luer <jake@alogicalparadox.com>
+ * MIT Licensed
+ */
+
+import * as chai from '../../chai.js';
+import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
+import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
+
+export interface ExpectInterface {
+  (val: unknown, message?: string): Assertion;
+  fail(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, message: string, operator: string): void;
+}
+
+const expect: ExpectInterface = function expect(val: unknown, message?: string): Assertion {
+  return Assertion.create(val, message);
+} as ExpectInterface;
+
+export {expect};
+
+/**
+ * ### .fail([message])
+ * ### .fail(actual, expected, [message], [operator])
+ *
+ * Throw a failure.
+ *
+ *     expect.fail();
+ *     expect.fail("custom error message");
+ *     expect.fail(1, 2);
+ *     expect.fail(1, 2, "custom error message");
+ *     expect.fail(1, 2, "custom error message", ">");
+ *     expect.fail(1, 2, undefined, ">");
+ *
+ * @name fail
+ * @param {Mixed} actual
+ * @param {Mixed} expected
+ * @param {String} message
+ * @param {String} operator
+ * @namespace BDD
+ * @api public
+ */
+
+function expectFail(
+  message?: string
+): void;
+function expectFail(
+  actual: unknown,
+  expected: unknown,
+  message?: string,
+  operator?: string
+): void;
+function expectFail(
+  actualOrMessage?: unknown,
+  expected?: unknown,
+  message?: string,
+  operator?: string
+): void {
+  let msg: string | undefined;
+  let actual;
+
+  if (arguments.length < 2) {
+    msg = actualOrMessage as string | undefined;
+    actual = undefined;
+  } else {
+    msg = message;
+    actual = actualOrMessage;
+  }
+
+  msg = msg || 'expect.fail()';
+  throw new AssertionError(msg, {
+      actual: actual
+    , expected: expected
+    , operator: operator
+  }, chai.expect.fail);
+};
+
+expect.fail = expectFail;
diff --git a/lib/chai/interface/should.js b/src/chai/interface/should.ts
similarity index 65%
rename from lib/chai/interface/should.js
rename to src/chai/interface/should.ts
index 8269a58bd..c8e190bc3 100644
--- a/lib/chai/interface/should.js
+++ b/src/chai/interface/should.ts
@@ -7,19 +7,39 @@
 import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
 
-function loadShould () {
+export interface ShouldAssertions {
+  fail(actual: unknown, expected: unknown, message: string, operator: string): void;
+  equal(val1: unknown, val2: unknown, msg: string): void;
+  Throw(fn: Function, errt: unknown, errs: RegExp, msg: string): void;
+  throw(fn: Function, errt: unknown, errs: RegExp, msg: string): void;
+  exist(val: unknown, msg: string): void;
+}
+
+export interface ShouldInterface extends ShouldAssertions {
+  not: ShouldAssertions;
+}
+
+declare global {
+  interface Object {
+    should: Assertion;
+  }
+}
+
+type Constructor<T> = {new(): T};
+
+function loadShould (): ShouldInterface {
   // explicitly define this method as function as to have it's name to include as `ssfi`
-  function shouldGetter() {
+  function shouldGetter(this: unknown) {
     if (this instanceof String
         || this instanceof Number
         || this instanceof Boolean
         || typeof Symbol === 'function' && this instanceof Symbol
         || typeof BigInt === 'function' && this instanceof BigInt) {
-      return new Assertion(this.valueOf(), null, shouldGetter);
+      return Assertion.create(this.valueOf(), null, shouldGetter);
     }
-    return new Assertion(this, null, shouldGetter);
+    return Assertion.create(this, null, shouldGetter);
   }
-  function shouldSetter(value) {
+  function shouldSetter(this: unknown, value: unknown) {
     // See https://github.com/chaijs/chai/issues/86: this makes
     // `whatever.should = someValue` actually set `someValue`, which is
     // especially useful for `global.should = require('chai').should()`.
@@ -40,8 +60,6 @@ function loadShould () {
     , configurable: true
   });
 
-  var should = {};
-
   /**
    * ### .fail([message])
    * ### .fail(actual, expected, [message], [operator])
@@ -65,18 +83,39 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.fail = function (actual, expected, message, operator) {
+  function shouldFail(
+    message?: string
+  ): void;
+  function shouldFail(
+    actual: unknown,
+    expected: unknown,
+    message: string,
+    operator: string
+  ): void;
+  function shouldFail(
+    actualOrMessage?: unknown,
+    expected?: unknown,
+    message?: string,
+    operator?: string
+  ): void {
+    let actual;
+    let msg: string|undefined;
+
     if (arguments.length < 2) {
-        message = actual;
-        actual = undefined;
+      msg = actualOrMessage as string | undefined;
+      actual = undefined;
+    } else {
+      msg = message;
+      actual = actualOrMessage;
     }
 
-    message = message || 'should.fail()';
-    throw new AssertionError(message, {
+    msg = msg || 'should.fail()';
+
+    throw new AssertionError(msg, {
         actual: actual
       , expected: expected
       , operator: operator
-    }, should.fail);
+    }, shouldFail);
   };
 
   /**
@@ -94,8 +133,8 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.equal = function (val1, val2, msg) {
-    new Assertion(val1, msg).to.equal(val2);
+  const shouldEqual = function (val1: unknown, val2: unknown, msg: string) {
+    Assertion.create(val1, msg).to.equal(val2);
   };
 
   /**
@@ -122,8 +161,8 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.Throw = function (fn, errt, errs, msg) {
-    new Assertion(fn, msg).to.Throw(errt, errs);
+  const shouldThrow = function (fn: Function, errt: Constructor<Error>, errs: RegExp, msg: string) {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg).to.Throw(errt, errs);
   };
 
   /**
@@ -140,13 +179,10 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.exist = function (val, msg) {
-    new Assertion(val, msg).to.exist;
+  const shouldExist = function (val: unknown, msg: string) {
+    Assertion.create(val, msg).to.exist;
   }
 
-  // negation
-  should.not = {}
-
   /**
    * ### .not.equal(actual, expected, [message])
    *
@@ -162,8 +198,8 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.not.equal = function (val1, val2, msg) {
-    new Assertion(val1, msg).to.not.equal(val2);
+  const shouldNotEqual = function (val1: unknown, val2: unknown, msg: string) {
+    Assertion.create(val1, msg).to.not.equal(val2);
   };
 
   /**
@@ -186,8 +222,8 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.not.Throw = function (fn, errt, errs, msg) {
-    new Assertion(fn, msg).to.not.Throw(errt, errs);
+  const shouldNotThrow = function (fn: Function, errt: Constructor<Error>, errs: RegExp, msg: string) {
+    Assertion.create(fn, msg).to.not.Throw(errt, errs);
   };
 
   /**
@@ -204,14 +240,24 @@ function loadShould () {
    * @api public
    */
 
-  should.not.exist = function (val, msg) {
-    new Assertion(val, msg).to.not.exist;
-  }
-
-  should['throw'] = should['Throw'];
-  should.not['throw'] = should.not['Throw'];
+  const shouldNotExist = function (val: unknown, msg: string) {
+    Assertion.create(val, msg).to.not.exist;
+  };
 
-  return should;
+  return {
+    equal: shouldEqual,
+    exist: shouldExist,
+    fail: shouldFail,
+    throw: shouldThrow,
+    Throw: shouldThrow,
+    not: {
+      equal: shouldNotEqual,
+      exist: shouldNotExist,
+      fail: () => {}, // Nonsensical, so make it noop
+      throw: shouldNotThrow,
+      Throw: shouldNotThrow
+    }
+  };
 };
 
 export const should = loadShould;
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/addChainableMethod.js b/src/chai/utils/addChainableMethod.ts
similarity index 84%
rename from lib/chai/utils/addChainableMethod.js
rename to src/chai/utils/addChainableMethod.ts
index aaf8baaa2..c46c1d6e7 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/addChainableMethod.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/addChainableMethod.ts
@@ -8,11 +8,11 @@
  * Module dependencies
  */
 
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 import {addLengthGuard} from './addLengthGuard.js';
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {proxify} from './proxify.js';
 import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
+import {ChainableBehavior} from './chainableBehavior.js';
 
 /*!
  * Module variables
@@ -70,27 +70,35 @@ var call  = Function.prototype.call,
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function addChainableMethod(ctx, name, method, chainingBehavior) {
+export function addChainableMethod<T extends object>(
+  ctx: T,
+  name: string,
+  method: (...args: unknown[]) => unknown,
+  chainingBehavior?: () => void,
+  createDefaultValue?: (ctx: T) => unknown
+) {
+  const ctxChainable = ctx as {__methods: Record<PropertyKey, ChainableBehavior>};
+
   if (typeof chainingBehavior !== 'function') {
     chainingBehavior = function () { };
   }
 
-  var chainableBehavior = {
+  var chainableBehavior: ChainableBehavior = {
       method: method
     , chainingBehavior: chainingBehavior
   };
 
   // save the methods so we can overwrite them later, if we need to.
-  if (!ctx.__methods) {
-    ctx.__methods = {};
+  if (!ctxChainable.__methods) {
+    ctxChainable.__methods = {};
   }
-  ctx.__methods[name] = chainableBehavior;
+  ctxChainable.__methods[name] = chainableBehavior;
 
   Object.defineProperty(ctx, name,
     { get: function chainableMethodGetter() {
         chainableBehavior.chainingBehavior.call(this);
 
-        var chainableMethodWrapper = function () {
+        var chainableMethodWrapper = function (this: T) {
           // Setting the `ssfi` flag to `chainableMethodWrapper` causes this
           // function to be the starting point for removing implementation
           // frames from the stack trace of a failed assertion.
@@ -110,14 +118,16 @@ export function addChainableMethod(ctx, name, method, chainingBehavior) {
             flag(this, 'ssfi', chainableMethodWrapper);
           }
 
-          var result = chainableBehavior.method.apply(this, arguments);
+          var result = chainableBehavior.method.call(this, ...arguments);
           if (result !== undefined) {
             return result;
           }
 
-          var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-          transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-          return newAssertion;
+          if (createDefaultValue) {
+            return createDefaultValue(this);
+          }
+
+          return undefined;
         };
 
         addLengthGuard(chainableMethodWrapper, name, true);
@@ -140,7 +150,9 @@ export function addChainableMethod(ctx, name, method, chainingBehavior) {
             }
 
             var pd = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(ctx, asserterName);
-            Object.defineProperty(chainableMethodWrapper, asserterName, pd);
+            if (pd) {
+              Object.defineProperty(chainableMethodWrapper, asserterName, pd);
+            }
           });
         }
 
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/addLengthGuard.js b/src/chai/utils/addLengthGuard.ts
similarity index 79%
rename from lib/chai/utils/addLengthGuard.js
rename to src/chai/utils/addLengthGuard.ts
index 630b64ae5..5a7560f01 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/addLengthGuard.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/addLengthGuard.ts
@@ -40,19 +40,20 @@ const fnLengthDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(function () {}, 'length');
  * @name addLengthGuard
  */
 
-export function addLengthGuard(fn, assertionName, isChainable) {
-  if (!fnLengthDesc.configurable) return fn;
+export function addLengthGuard(fn: Function, assertionName: PropertyKey, isChainable: boolean) {
+  if (!fnLengthDesc?.configurable) return fn;
 
+  const assertionNameStr = String(assertionName);
   Object.defineProperty(fn, 'length', {
     get: function () {
       if (isChainable) {
-        throw Error('Invalid Chai property: ' + assertionName + '.length. Due' +
+        throw Error('Invalid Chai property: ' + assertionNameStr + '.length. Due' +
           ' to a compatibility issue, "length" cannot directly follow "' +
-          assertionName + '". Use "' + assertionName + '.lengthOf" instead.');
+          assertionNameStr + '". Use "' + assertionNameStr + '.lengthOf" instead.');
       }
 
-      throw Error('Invalid Chai property: ' + assertionName + '.length. See' +
-        ' docs for proper usage of "' + assertionName + '".');
+      throw Error('Invalid Chai property: ' + assertionNameStr + '.length. See' +
+        ' docs for proper usage of "' + assertionNameStr + '".');
     }
   });
 
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/addMethod.js b/src/chai/utils/addMethod.ts
similarity index 83%
rename from lib/chai/utils/addMethod.js
rename to src/chai/utils/addMethod.ts
index 02fc7bdb1..2402a00d8 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/addMethod.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/addMethod.ts
@@ -7,8 +7,6 @@
 import {addLengthGuard} from './addLengthGuard.js';
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {proxify} from './proxify.js';
-import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 
 /**
  * ### .addMethod(ctx, name, method)
@@ -36,8 +34,13 @@ import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function addMethod(ctx, name, method) {
-  var methodWrapper = function () {
+export function addMethod<T extends object>(
+  ctx: T,
+  name: PropertyKey,
+  method: Function,
+  createDefaultValue?: (ctx: T) => unknown
+) {
+  var methodWrapper = function (this: T) {
     // Setting the `ssfi` flag to `methodWrapper` causes this function to be the
     // starting point for removing implementation frames from the stack trace of
     // a failed assertion.
@@ -58,11 +61,13 @@ export function addMethod(ctx, name, method) {
     if (result !== undefined)
       return result;
 
-    var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-    transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-    return newAssertion;
+    if (createDefaultValue) {
+      return createDefaultValue(this);
+    }
+
+    return undefined;
   };
 
   addLengthGuard(methodWrapper, name, false);
-  ctx[name] = proxify(methodWrapper, name);
+  (ctx as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[name] = proxify(methodWrapper, name);
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/addProperty.js b/src/chai/utils/addProperty.ts
similarity index 85%
rename from lib/chai/utils/addProperty.js
rename to src/chai/utils/addProperty.ts
index 7bdfb520a..e1f0df0a6 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/addProperty.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/addProperty.ts
@@ -4,10 +4,8 @@
  * MIT Licensed
  */
 
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {isProxyEnabled} from './isProxyEnabled.js';
-import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
 
 /**
  * ### .addProperty(ctx, name, getter)
@@ -35,8 +33,13 @@ import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function addProperty(ctx, name, getter) {
-  getter = getter === undefined ? function () {} : getter;
+export function addProperty<T extends object>(
+  ctx: T,
+  name: PropertyKey,
+  getter?: Function,
+  getDefaultValue?: (ctx: T) => unknown
+) {
+  const getterFn = getter === undefined ? function () {} : getter;
 
   Object.defineProperty(ctx, name,
     { get: function propertyGetter() {
@@ -59,13 +62,15 @@ export function addProperty(ctx, name, getter) {
           flag(this, 'ssfi', propertyGetter);
         }
 
-        var result = getter.call(this);
+        var result = getterFn.call(this);
         if (result !== undefined)
           return result;
 
-        var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-        transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-        return newAssertion;
+        if (getDefaultValue) {
+          return getDefaultValue(this);
+        }
+
+        return undefined;
       }
     , configurable: true
   });
diff --git a/src/chai/utils/chainableBehavior.ts b/src/chai/utils/chainableBehavior.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..8923065c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/chai/utils/chainableBehavior.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+export interface ChainableBehavior {
+  chainingBehavior: () => void;
+  method: (...args: unknown[]) => unknown;
+}
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/compareByInspect.js b/src/chai/utils/compareByInspect.ts
similarity index 92%
rename from lib/chai/utils/compareByInspect.js
rename to src/chai/utils/compareByInspect.ts
index ff9f98177..af083a75f 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/compareByInspect.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/compareByInspect.ts
@@ -26,6 +26,6 @@ import {inspect} from './inspect.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function compareByInspect(a, b) {
+export function compareByInspect(a: unknown, b: unknown) {
   return inspect(a) < inspect(b) ? -1 : 1;
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/expectTypes.js b/src/chai/utils/expectTypes.ts
similarity index 90%
rename from lib/chai/utils/expectTypes.js
rename to src/chai/utils/expectTypes.ts
index 4a80d06a4..7a6dff4d6 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/expectTypes.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/expectTypes.ts
@@ -22,13 +22,13 @@ import {AssertionError} from 'assertion-error';
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {type} from './type-detect.js';
 
-export function expectTypes(obj, types) {
+export function expectTypes(obj: object, types: string[]) {
   var flagMsg = flag(obj, 'message');
-  var ssfi = flag(obj, 'ssfi');
+  var ssfi = flag(obj, 'ssfi') as Function;
 
   flagMsg = flagMsg ? flagMsg + ': ' : '';
 
-  obj = flag(obj, 'object');
+  obj = flag(obj, 'object') as object;
   types = types.map(function (t) { return t.toLowerCase(); });
   types.sort();
 
diff --git a/src/chai/utils/flag.ts b/src/chai/utils/flag.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fd96d1c99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/chai/utils/flag.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
+/*!
+ * Chai - flag utility
+ * Copyright(c) 2012-2014 Jake Luer <jake@alogicalparadox.com>
+ * MIT Licensed
+ */
+
+/**
+ * ### .flag(object, key, [value])
+ *
+ * Get or set a flag value on an object. If a
+ * value is provided it will be set, else it will
+ * return the currently set value or `undefined` if
+ * the value is not set.
+ *
+ *     utils.flag(this, 'foo', 'bar'); // setter
+ *     utils.flag(this, 'foo'); // getter, returns `bar`
+ *
+ * @param {Object} object constructed Assertion
+ * @param {String} key
+ * @param {Mixed} value (optional)
+ * @namespace Utils
+ * @name flag
+ * @api private
+ */
+
+function flag<
+  T extends {__flags: unknown},
+  TKey extends keyof T['__flags']
+>(
+  obj: T,
+  key: TKey
+): T['__flags'][TKey];
+function flag<
+  T extends {__flags: unknown},
+  TKey extends keyof T['__flags']
+>(
+  obj: T,
+  key: TKey,
+  value: T['__flags'][TKey]
+): void;
+function flag<
+  T extends object
+>(
+  obj: T,
+  key: PropertyKey
+): unknown;
+function flag<
+  T extends object
+>(
+  obj: T,
+  key: PropertyKey,
+  value: unknown
+): void;
+function flag(
+  obj: object,
+  key: PropertyKey,
+  value?: unknown
+): unknown {
+  const objWithFlags = obj as {__flags?: Record<PropertyKey, unknown>};
+  const flags = objWithFlags.__flags || (objWithFlags.__flags = Object.create(null));
+  if (arguments.length === 3) {
+    (flags as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[key] = value;
+  } else {
+    return (flags as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[key];
+  }
+}
+
+export {flag};
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getActual.js b/src/chai/utils/getActual.ts
similarity index 74%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getActual.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getActual.ts
index e96046798..80599ba1b 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getActual.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getActual.ts
@@ -15,6 +15,6 @@
  * @name getActual
  */
 
-export function getActual(obj, args) {
-  return args.length > 4 ? args[4] : obj._obj;
+export function getActual(obj: object, args: IArguments) {
+  return args.length > 4 ? args[4] : (obj as {_obj: unknown})._obj;
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getEnumerableProperties.js b/src/chai/utils/getEnumerableProperties.ts
similarity index 89%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getEnumerableProperties.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getEnumerableProperties.ts
index a84252cfd..0c7ba9c35 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getEnumerableProperties.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getEnumerableProperties.ts
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
  * @api public
  */
 
-module.exports = function getEnumerableProperties(object) {
+export function getEnumerableProperties(object: object) {
   var result = [];
   for (var name in object) {
     result.push(name);
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getMessage.js b/src/chai/utils/getMessage.ts
similarity index 95%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getMessage.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getMessage.ts
index 97c4826e5..ab574da2a 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getMessage.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getMessage.ts
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ import {objDisplay} from './objDisplay.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function getMessage(obj, args) {
+export function getMessage(obj: object, args: IArguments): string {
   var negate = flag(obj, 'negate')
     , val = flag(obj, 'object')
     , expected = args[3]
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getOperator.js b/src/chai/utils/getOperator.ts
similarity index 92%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getOperator.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getOperator.ts
index a2afa5050..370ac600c 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getOperator.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getOperator.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {type} from './type-detect.js';
 
-function isObjectType(obj) {
+function isObjectType(obj: object) {
   var objectType = type(obj);
   var objectTypes = ['Array', 'Object', 'Function'];
 
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ function isObjectType(obj) {
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function getOperator(obj, args) {
+export function getOperator(obj: object, args: IArguments) {
   var operator = flag(obj, 'operator');
   var negate = flag(obj, 'negate');
   var expected = args[3];
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerableProperties.js b/src/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerableProperties.ts
similarity index 82%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerableProperties.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerableProperties.ts
index a54b11000..1d77d523b 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerableProperties.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerableProperties.ts
@@ -24,6 +24,9 @@ import {getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols} from './getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function getOwnEnumerableProperties(obj) {
-  return Object.keys(obj).concat(getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols(obj));
+export function getOwnEnumerableProperties(obj: object) {
+  return [
+    ...Object.keys(obj),
+    ...getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols(obj)
+  ];
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols.js b/src/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols.ts
similarity index 84%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols.ts
index 99571c647..e04568be0 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols.ts
@@ -18,10 +18,10 @@
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols(obj) {
+export function getOwnEnumerablePropertySymbols(obj: object) {
   if (typeof Object.getOwnPropertySymbols !== 'function') return [];
 
   return Object.getOwnPropertySymbols(obj).filter(function (sym) {
-    return Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, sym).enumerable;
+    return Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, sym)?.enumerable;
   });
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/getProperties.js b/src/chai/utils/getProperties.ts
similarity index 88%
rename from lib/chai/utils/getProperties.js
rename to src/chai/utils/getProperties.ts
index 99f40a447..d163ceada 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/getProperties.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/getProperties.ts
@@ -17,10 +17,10 @@
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function getProperties(object) {
+export function getProperties(object: object) {
   var result = Object.getOwnPropertyNames(object);
 
-  function addProperty(property) {
+  function addProperty(property: string) {
     if (result.indexOf(property) === -1) {
       result.push(property);
     }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/index.js b/src/chai/utils/index.ts
similarity index 98%
rename from lib/chai/utils/index.js
rename to src/chai/utils/index.ts
index 4b9eba8be..2365f3204 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/index.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/index.ts
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ export {getPathInfo, hasProperty} from 'pathval';
  * Function name
  */
 
-export function getName(fn) {
+export function getName(fn: Function) {
   return fn.name
 }
 
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/inspect.js b/src/chai/utils/inspect.ts
similarity index 91%
rename from lib/chai/utils/inspect.js
rename to src/chai/utils/inspect.ts
index 3100c1aa6..47309f353 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/inspect.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/inspect.ts
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ import {config} from '../config.js';
  * @namespace Utils
  * @name inspect
  */
-export function inspect(obj, showHidden, depth, colors) {
+export function inspect(obj: unknown, showHidden?: boolean, depth?: number, colors?: boolean) {
   var options = {
     colors: colors,
     depth: (typeof depth === 'undefined' ? 2 : depth),
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/isNaN.js b/src/chai/utils/isNaN.ts
similarity index 94%
rename from lib/chai/utils/isNaN.js
rename to src/chai/utils/isNaN.ts
index 7b1e0f069..9f362b6c8 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/isNaN.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/isNaN.ts
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
  * @api private
  */
 
-function _isNaN(value) {
+function _isNaN(value: unknown) {
   // Refer http://www.ecma-international.org/ecma-262/6.0/#sec-isnan-number
   // section's NOTE.
   return value !== value;
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/isProxyEnabled.js b/src/chai/utils/isProxyEnabled.ts
similarity index 100%
rename from lib/chai/utils/isProxyEnabled.js
rename to src/chai/utils/isProxyEnabled.ts
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/objDisplay.js b/src/chai/utils/objDisplay.ts
similarity index 78%
rename from lib/chai/utils/objDisplay.js
rename to src/chai/utils/objDisplay.ts
index 5a8383c05..572668512 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/objDisplay.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/objDisplay.ts
@@ -25,19 +25,19 @@ import {config} from '../config.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function objDisplay(obj) {
+export function objDisplay(obj: unknown) {
   var str = inspect(obj)
     , type = Object.prototype.toString.call(obj);
 
   if (config.truncateThreshold && str.length >= config.truncateThreshold) {
     if (type === '[object Function]') {
-      return !obj.name || obj.name === ''
+      return !(obj as Function).name || (obj as Function).name === ''
         ? '[Function]'
-        : '[Function: ' + obj.name + ']';
+        : '[Function: ' + (obj as Function).name + ']';
     } else if (type === '[object Array]') {
-      return '[ Array(' + obj.length + ') ]';
+      return '[ Array(' + (obj as unknown[]).length + ') ]';
     } else if (type === '[object Object]') {
-      var keys = Object.keys(obj)
+      var keys = Object.keys(obj as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)
         , kstr = keys.length > 2
           ? keys.splice(0, 2).join(', ') + ', ...'
           : keys.join(', ');
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/overwriteChainableMethod.js b/src/chai/utils/overwriteChainableMethod.ts
similarity index 74%
rename from lib/chai/utils/overwriteChainableMethod.js
rename to src/chai/utils/overwriteChainableMethod.ts
index a7f3f6a15..0b4031244 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/overwriteChainableMethod.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/overwriteChainableMethod.ts
@@ -4,8 +4,7 @@
  * MIT Licensed
  */
 
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
-import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
+import {ChainableBehavior} from './chainableBehavior.js';
 
 /**
  * ### .overwriteChainableMethod(ctx, name, method, chainingBehavior)
@@ -40,30 +39,40 @@ import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function overwriteChainableMethod(ctx, name, method, chainingBehavior) {
-  var chainableBehavior = ctx.__methods[name];
+export function overwriteChainableMethod<T extends object>(
+  ctx: T,
+  name: string,
+  method: Function,
+  chainingBehavior: Function,
+  createDefaultValue?: (ctx: T) => unknown
+) {
+  var chainableBehavior = (ctx as {__methods: Record<PropertyKey, ChainableBehavior>}).__methods[name];
 
   var _chainingBehavior = chainableBehavior.chainingBehavior;
-  chainableBehavior.chainingBehavior = function overwritingChainableMethodGetter() {
+  chainableBehavior.chainingBehavior = function overwritingChainableMethodGetter(this: T) {
     var result = chainingBehavior(_chainingBehavior).call(this);
     if (result !== undefined) {
       return result;
     }
 
-    var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-    transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-    return newAssertion;
+    if (createDefaultValue) {
+      return createDefaultValue(this);
+    }
+
+    return undefined;
   };
 
   var _method = chainableBehavior.method;
-  chainableBehavior.method = function overwritingChainableMethodWrapper() {
+  chainableBehavior.method = function overwritingChainableMethodWrapper(this: T) {
     var result = method(_method).apply(this, arguments);
     if (result !== undefined) {
       return result;
     }
 
-    var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-    transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-    return newAssertion;
+    if (createDefaultValue) {
+      return createDefaultValue(this);
+    }
+
+    return undefined;
   };
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/overwriteMethod.js b/src/chai/utils/overwriteMethod.ts
similarity index 82%
rename from lib/chai/utils/overwriteMethod.js
rename to src/chai/utils/overwriteMethod.ts
index 17cb0d916..6311ede3a 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/overwriteMethod.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/overwriteMethod.ts
@@ -4,11 +4,9 @@
  * MIT Licensed
  */
 
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 import {addLengthGuard} from './addLengthGuard.js';
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {proxify} from './proxify.js';
-import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
 
 /**
  * ### .overwriteMethod(ctx, name, fn)
@@ -44,16 +42,21 @@ import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function overwriteMethod(ctx, name, method) {
-  var _method = ctx[name]
-    , _super = function () {
-      throw new Error(name + ' is not a function');
+export function overwriteMethod<T extends object>(
+  ctx: T,
+  name: PropertyKey,
+  method: Function,
+  createDefaultValue?: (ctx: T) => unknown
+) {
+  var _method = (ctx as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[name]
+    , _super: Function = function () {
+      throw new Error(String(name) + ' is not a function');
     };
 
   if (_method && 'function' === typeof _method)
     _super = _method;
 
-  var overwritingMethodWrapper = function () {
+  var overwritingMethodWrapper = function (this: T) {
     // Setting the `ssfi` flag to `overwritingMethodWrapper` causes this
     // function to be the starting point for removing implementation frames from
     // the stack trace of a failed assertion.
@@ -82,11 +85,13 @@ export function overwriteMethod(ctx, name, method) {
       return result;
     }
 
-    var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-    transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-    return newAssertion;
+    if (createDefaultValue) {
+      return createDefaultValue(this);
+    }
+
+    return undefined;
   }
 
   addLengthGuard(overwritingMethodWrapper, name, false);
-  ctx[name] = proxify(overwritingMethodWrapper, name);
+  (ctx as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[name] = proxify(overwritingMethodWrapper, name);
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/overwriteProperty.js b/src/chai/utils/overwriteProperty.ts
similarity index 91%
rename from lib/chai/utils/overwriteProperty.js
rename to src/chai/utils/overwriteProperty.ts
index defeee257..5cb29b60b 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/overwriteProperty.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/overwriteProperty.ts
@@ -4,10 +4,8 @@
  * MIT Licensed
  */
 
-import {Assertion} from '../assertion.js';
 import {flag} from './flag.js';
 import {isProxyEnabled} from './isProxyEnabled.js';
-import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
 
 /**
  * ### .overwriteProperty(ctx, name, fn)
@@ -43,7 +41,12 @@ import {transferFlags} from './transferFlags.js';
  * @api public
  */
 
-export function overwriteProperty(ctx, name, getter) {
+export function overwriteProperty<T extends object>(
+  ctx: T,
+  name: PropertyKey,
+  getter: Function,
+  createDefaultValue?: (ctx: T) => unknown
+) {
   var _get = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(ctx, name)
     , _super = function () {};
 
@@ -83,9 +86,11 @@ export function overwriteProperty(ctx, name, getter) {
           return result;
         }
 
-        var newAssertion = new Assertion();
-        transferFlags(this, newAssertion);
-        return newAssertion;
+        if (createDefaultValue) {
+          return createDefaultValue(this);
+        }
+
+        return undefined;
       }
     , configurable: true
   });
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/proxify.js b/src/chai/utils/proxify.ts
similarity index 91%
rename from lib/chai/utils/proxify.js
rename to src/chai/utils/proxify.ts
index ca1a2c2b1..2712a6325 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/proxify.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/proxify.ts
@@ -28,9 +28,9 @@ import {isProxyEnabled} from './isProxyEnabled.js';
  * @name proxify
  */
 
-const builtins = ['__flags', '__methods', '_obj', 'assert'];
+const builtins: PropertyKey[] = ['__flags', '__methods', '_obj', 'assert'];
 
-export function proxify(obj ,nonChainableMethodName) {
+export function proxify<T extends object>(obj: T, nonChainableMethodName?: PropertyKey): T {
   if (!isProxyEnabled()) return obj;
 
   return new Proxy(obj, {
@@ -44,9 +44,9 @@ export function proxify(obj ,nonChainableMethodName) {
           !Reflect.has(target, property)) {
         // Special message for invalid property access of non-chainable methods.
         if (nonChainableMethodName) {
-          throw Error('Invalid Chai property: ' + nonChainableMethodName + '.' +
+          throw Error('Invalid Chai property: ' + String(nonChainableMethodName) + '.' +
             property + '. See docs for proper usage of "' +
-            nonChainableMethodName + '".');
+            String(nonChainableMethodName) + '".');
         }
 
         // If the property is reasonably close to an existing Chai property,
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ export function proxify(obj ,nonChainableMethodName) {
       // being called from within another assertion. In that case, the `ssfi`
       // flag is already set to the outer assertion's starting point.
       if (builtins.indexOf(property) === -1 && !flag(target, 'lockSsfi')) {
-        flag(target, 'ssfi', proxyGetter);
+        flag(target as object, 'ssfi', proxyGetter);
       }
 
       return Reflect.get(target, property);
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ export function proxify(obj ,nonChainableMethodName) {
  * @api private
  */
 
-function stringDistanceCapped(strA, strB, cap) {
+function stringDistanceCapped(strA: string, strB: string, cap: number) {
   if (Math.abs(strA.length - strB.length) >= cap) {
     return cap;
   }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/test.js b/src/chai/utils/test.ts
similarity index 90%
rename from lib/chai/utils/test.js
rename to src/chai/utils/test.ts
index 19a47dbe8..7ee4b72a8 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/test.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/test.ts
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ import {flag} from './flag.js';
  * @name test
  */
 
-export function test(obj, args) {
+export function test(obj: object, args: IArguments) {
   var negate = flag(obj, 'negate')
     , expr = args[0];
   return negate ? !expr : expr;
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/transferFlags.js b/src/chai/utils/transferFlags.ts
similarity index 70%
rename from lib/chai/utils/transferFlags.js
rename to src/chai/utils/transferFlags.ts
index a1a7d3ef4..d9c13b3d5 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/transferFlags.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/transferFlags.ts
@@ -27,19 +27,19 @@
  * @api private
  */
 
-export function transferFlags(assertion, object, includeAll) {
-  var flags = assertion.__flags || (assertion.__flags = Object.create(null));
+export function transferFlags(assertion: object, object: object, includeAll?: boolean) {
+  const assertionWithFlags = assertion as {__flags?: Record<PropertyKey, unknown>};
+  const objWithFlags = object as {__flags?: Record<PropertyKey, unknown>};
 
-  if (!object.__flags) {
-    object.__flags = Object.create(null);
-  }
+  var flags = assertionWithFlags.__flags || (assertionWithFlags.__flags = Object.create(null));
+  const objFlags = objWithFlags.__flags || (objWithFlags.__flags = Object.create(null));
 
   includeAll = arguments.length === 3 ? includeAll : true;
 
   for (var flag in flags) {
     if (includeAll ||
         (flag !== 'object' && flag !== 'ssfi' && flag !== 'lockSsfi' && flag != 'message')) {
-      object.__flags[flag] = flags[flag];
+      objFlags[flag] = flags[flag];
     }
   }
 }
diff --git a/lib/chai/utils/type-detect.js b/src/chai/utils/type-detect.ts
similarity index 68%
rename from lib/chai/utils/type-detect.js
rename to src/chai/utils/type-detect.ts
index 5a86a6ab2..1db741bb3 100644
--- a/lib/chai/utils/type-detect.js
+++ b/src/chai/utils/type-detect.ts
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
-export function type(obj) {
+export function type(obj: unknown) {
   if (typeof obj === 'undefined') {
     return 'undefined';
   }
-  
+
   if (obj === null) {
     return 'null';
   }
 
-  const stringTag = obj[Symbol.toStringTag];
+  const stringTag = (obj as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[Symbol.toStringTag];
   if (typeof stringTag === 'string') {
     return stringTag;
   }
diff --git a/test/assert.js b/test/assert.js
index 8462fd5ee..ce3061412 100644
--- a/test/assert.js
+++ b/test/assert.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 import {globalErr as err} from './bootstrap/index.js';
 
 describe('assert', function () {
diff --git a/test/bootstrap/index.js b/test/bootstrap/index.js
index a6cb371e3..877b3346d 100644
--- a/test/bootstrap/index.js
+++ b/test/bootstrap/index.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 var isStackSupported = false;
 if (typeof Error.captureStackTrace !== 'undefined') {
diff --git a/test/configuration.js b/test/configuration.js
index 09e1b4982..b2d853403 100644
--- a/test/configuration.js
+++ b/test/configuration.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 import {globalErr as err} from './bootstrap/index.js';
 
 import '../register-should.js'; 
diff --git a/test/display/errors.js b/test/display/errors.js
index cef1b7023..c49b66730 100644
--- a/test/display/errors.js
+++ b/test/display/errors.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 var expect = chai.expect;
 
diff --git a/test/display/message.js b/test/display/message.js
index 7ce281252..e300b5e6b 100644
--- a/test/display/message.js
+++ b/test/display/message.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js'
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js'
 
 const expect = chai.expect
 
diff --git a/test/expect.js b/test/expect.js
index 2dd08ef26..bbc4e91f5 100644
--- a/test/expect.js
+++ b/test/expect.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 import {globalErr as err} from './bootstrap/index.js';
 
 describe('expect', function () {
@@ -11,29 +11,34 @@ describe('expect', function () {
 
   describe('safeguards', function () {
     before(function () {
+      const getDefaultValue = (assertion) => {
+        var newAssertion = chai.Assertion.create();
+        chai.util.transferFlags(assertion, newAssertion);
+        return newAssertion;
+      };
       chai.util.addProperty(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpProperty', function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
       chai.util.overwriteProperty(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpProperty', function (_super) {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
         };
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
 
       chai.util.addMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpMethod', function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
       chai.util.overwriteMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpMethod', function (_super) {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
         };
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
 
       chai.util.addChainableMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpChainableMethod', function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
       }, function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
       chai.util.overwriteChainableMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpChainableMethod', function (_super) {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
@@ -42,7 +47,7 @@ describe('expect', function () {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
         };
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
     });
 
     after(function () {
diff --git a/test/globalErr.js b/test/globalErr.js
index a93f77387..ed02b5742 100644
--- a/test/globalErr.js
+++ b/test/globalErr.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 import {globalErr as err} from './bootstrap/index.js';
 
 describe('globalErr', function () {
diff --git a/test/globalShould.js b/test/globalShould.js
index 5fb11eaf0..5f8651dc8 100644
--- a/test/globalShould.js
+++ b/test/globalShould.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 
 describe('global should', function () {
   it('works', function () {
diff --git a/test/plugins.js b/test/plugins.js
index 4db1f44df..bc733d488 100644
--- a/test/plugins.js
+++ b/test/plugins.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 
 describe('plugins', function () {
 
diff --git a/test/should.js b/test/should.js
index 17429961f..eb233c48f 100644
--- a/test/should.js
+++ b/test/should.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 import {globalErr as err} from './bootstrap/index.js';
 
 describe('should', function() {
@@ -12,29 +12,34 @@ describe('should', function() {
 
   describe('safeguards', function () {
     before(function () {
+      const getDefaultValue = (assertion) => {
+        var newAssertion = chai.Assertion.create();
+        chai.util.transferFlags(assertion, newAssertion);
+        return newAssertion;
+      };
       chai.util.addProperty(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpProperty', function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
       chai.util.overwriteProperty(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpProperty', function (_super) {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
         };
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
 
       chai.util.addMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpMethod', function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
       chai.util.overwriteMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpMethod', function (_super) {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
         };
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
 
       chai.util.addChainableMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpChainableMethod', function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
       }, function () {
         new chai.Assertion(42).equal(42);
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
       chai.util.overwriteChainableMethod(chai.Assertion.prototype, 'tmpChainableMethod', function (_super) {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
@@ -43,7 +48,7 @@ describe('should', function() {
         return function () {
           _super.call(this);
         };
-      });
+      }, getDefaultValue);
     });
 
     after(function () {
diff --git a/test/type-detect/dom.js b/test/type-detect/dom.js
index bda6bdc3d..4c0f8882d 100644
--- a/test/type-detect/dom.js
+++ b/test/type-detect/dom.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 function assert (expr, msg) {
   if (!expr) {
diff --git a/test/type-detect/index.js b/test/type-detect/index.js
index 983800d12..07ef8eb22 100644
--- a/test/type-detect/index.js
+++ b/test/type-detect/index.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 function assert (expr, msg) {
   if (!expr) {
diff --git a/test/type-detect/new-ecmascript-types.js b/test/type-detect/new-ecmascript-types.js
index 256c998e6..b9fba5d17 100644
--- a/test/type-detect/new-ecmascript-types.js
+++ b/test/type-detect/new-ecmascript-types.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 function assert (expr, msg) {
   if (!expr) {
diff --git a/test/type-detect/node.js b/test/type-detect/node.js
index 185525484..ca0a6facd 100644
--- a/test/type-detect/node.js
+++ b/test/type-detect/node.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 function assert (expr, msg) {
   if (!expr) {
diff --git a/test/type-detect/tostringtag-extras.js b/test/type-detect/tostringtag-extras.js
index 3a0f7deba..23543ee8f 100644
--- a/test/type-detect/tostringtag-extras.js
+++ b/test/type-detect/tostringtag-extras.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../../lib/chai.js';
 
 function assert (expr, msg) {
   if (!expr) {
diff --git a/test/utilities.js b/test/utilities.js
index 5a00da46a..b28dc32cf 100644
--- a/test/utilities.js
+++ b/test/utilities.js
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import * as chai from '../index.js';
+import * as chai from '../lib/chai.js';
 
 describe('utilities', function () {
   const expect = chai.expect;
diff --git a/tsconfig.json b/tsconfig.json
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..beea32811
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tsconfig.json
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+{
+  "compilerOptions": {
+    "target": "es2021",
+    "module": "nodenext",
+    "moduleResolution": "nodenext",
+    "types": [],
+    "declaration": true,
+    "sourceMap": true,
+    "outDir": "./lib",
+    "isolatedModules": true,
+    "forceConsistentCasingInFileNames": true,
+    "strict": true,
+    "noUnusedLocals": true,
+    "noUnusedParameters": true
+  },
+  "include": [
+    "src/**/*.ts"
+  ]
+}