Learn Yul

This repository is a collection of my notes taken in the process of learning Yul.

Props to Jeffrey Scholz for his Yul course.

Description

Yul is an intermediate language that can be compiled to bytecode for different backends. It can be used in stand-alone mode and for “inline assembly” inside Solidity. The compiler uses Yul as an intermediate language in the IR-based code generator (“new codegen” or “IR-based codegen”). Yul is a good target for high-level optimisation stages that can benefit all target platforms equally.

Yul Syntax

To write Yul code in Solidity, use the assembly keyword.

contract C {
    function f() public {
        assembly {
            // Yul code goes here
        }
    }
}

In in-line assembly, variables are initialized on the stack.

Function syntax:

function functionName(param1, param2, ...) -> return1, return2, ... {
    // code
}

To declare a variable, use the let keyword.

let x := 1

Yul Types

Yul has only 1 type: `bytes32`. This can hold any value. The compiler will automatically insert conversions as needed.

For literals, the following types are available:

Integer constants in decimal or hexadecimal notation.
ASCII strings (e.g. "abc"), which may contain hex escapes \xNN and Unicode escapes \uNNNN where N are hexadecimal digits.
Hex strings (e.g. hex"616263").

For example, the following function will return true, 10, and 0x48656c6c6f20576f726c64210000000000000000000000000000000000000000 which is the bytes32 representation of the "Hello World!" string.

function f() public pure returns (bool, uint256, bytes32) {
        bool x;
        uint256 y;
        bytes32 z;

        assembly {
            x := 1
            y := 0xa
            z := "Hello World!"
        }

        return( x, y, z);
    }

Yul Basic Operations

Yul has no overflow protection!

add(x, y) - addition
sub(x, y) - subtraction
mul(x, y) - multiplication
div(x, y) - division
mod(x, y) - modulo

For multiple operations, the innermost operation is executed first:

let x := add(1, mul(2, 3)) // = add(1, 6) = 7

For Loop

Both of the following examples are valid:

    function forLoop(uint256 n) public {
        assembly {
            for {let i := 0} lt(i, n) {i := add(i, 1)} {
                // do something
            }
        }
    }

    function forLoop(uint256 n) public {
        assembly {
            let i := 0
            for { } lt(i, n) { } {
                // do something
                i := add(i, 1)
            }
        }
    }

To exit the for loop use the break statement.

If Statement

Yul has no boolean type. Instead, any value other than 0 is considered true.

    function ifTrue(uint256 n) public {
        assembly {
            if 2 { // 2 is true
                // do something
            }
        }
    }

    function ifFalse(uint256 n) public {
        assembly {
            if 0 { // 0 is false
                // do something
            }
        }
    }

    function negation(uint256 n) public {
        assembly {
            // if 0 is 0 result in true, negation of false
            if iszero(0) {
                // if true, do something
            }
        }
    }

Switch Statement

Switch statements are similar to if statements, but they can have only one case that is true, as the other cases are not checked after one is true.

    function switchStatement(uint256 n) public {
        assembly {
            switch n
            case 0 {
                // if n == 0 do something
            }
            case 1 {
                // if n == 1 do something
            }
            default {
                // if neither case is true, do something
            }
        }
    }

Yul Functions

Comparison Operations

eq(x, y) - equality
iszero(x) - 1 if x == 0, 0 otherwise
lt(x, y) - 1 if x < y, 0 otherwise
gt(x, y) - 1 if x > y, 0 otherwise

Bitwise operations

and(x, y) - bitwise “and” of x and y
or(x, y) - bitwise “or” of x and y
xor(x, y) - bitwise “xor” of x and y
not(x) - bitwise “not” of x (every bit of x is negated)
byte(n, x) - nth byte of x, where the most significant byte is the 0th byte
shl(x, y) - logical shift left y by x bits
shr(x, y) - logical shift right y by x bits

Other useful functions

pop(x) - discard the value x (useful for discarding return values of functions), eliminating it from the stack
gas() - return the remaining gas
address() - return the current contract address
caller() - return the address of the caller
origin() - return the address of the original transaction sender
callvalue() - return the value sent with the current call
selfbalance() - return the balance of the current contract
balance(a) - return the balance of the address a
create(v, p, n) - create a new contract with code memory[p…(p+n)) and send v wei and return the new address, or 0 on failure
create2(v, p, n, s) - create a new contract with code memory[p…(p+n)) at address keccak256(0xff . this . s . keccak256(memory[p…(p+n)))) and send v wei and return the new address, or 0 on failure
selfdestruct(a) - destroy the current contract and send its funds to address a
gasprice() - return the gas price of the current transaction
timestamp() - return the timestamp of the current block
number() - return the block number of the current block

More functions related to storage and memory will be covered in the next sections.

Storage Slots & Variables

Single variables being stored in one slot:

Storage slots are 256-bit words. To get the storage slot of a variable, use the .slot keyword.
To load a value from storage, use the sload keyword and pass in the storage slot as a parameter.
To store a value to storage, use the sstore keyword and pass in the storage slot and value as parameters.

Example of setter and getter functions for a storage variable:

    uint256 x;

    function set(uint256 _x) public {
        assembly {
            sstore(x.slot, _x)
        }
    }

    function get() public view returns (uint256 x_) {
        assembly {
            x_ := sload(x.slot)
        }
    }

Multiple variables being packed into one slot:

Offset is the number of bytes from the start of the slot that the variable starts at. To get the offset of a variable, use the .offset keyword.

Example of setter and getter function for packed storage variables:

    uint128 a;
    uint96 b;
    uint16 c;
    uint8 d;

    function set(uint16 _c) public {
        assembly{
            // Get the storage slot of the variable
            let wholeSlot := sload(c.slot)

            // Clear the variable's bits in the slot. Since it is a uint16, it is 2 bytes long.
            let cleared := and(wholeSlot, 0xffff0000ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff)

            // Shift the new value to the left by the offset of the variable multiplied by 8(1 byte = 8 bits)
            let shifted := shl(mul(c.offset, 8), _c)

            // Combine the cleared slot and the shifted value
            let newValue := or(shifted, cleared)

            // Store the new value in the slot
            sstore(c.slot, newValue)
        }
    }

    function get() public view returns (uint16 c_) {
        assembly {
            // Get the storage slot of the variable
            let wholeSlot := sload(c.slot)

            // Shift the slot to the right by the offset of the variable
            let shifted := shr(mul(c.offset, 8), wholeSlot)

            // Mask the slot to get the value of the variable
            c_ := and(shifted, 0xffff)
        }
    }

Storage Arrays

Fixed Arrays

To get the bytes32 value at a specific index of a fixed array, use the sload keyword and pass in the storage slot of the array + index as parameters.

    uint256[5] arr;

    function get(uint256 index) public view returns (uint256 value) {
        assembly {
            value := sload(add(arr.slot, index))
        }
    }

For arrays of variables smaller than 32 bytes, the compiler will pack the variables into a single slot when possible.

    uint128[4] arr;

    function getIndex1() public view returns (uint128 value) {
        bytes32 packed;
        assembly {
            // Get the first bytes32 of the array
            packed := sload(arr.slot)
            // Shift the bytes32 to the right by 16 bytes(128 bits) to get the value of the first variable
            value := shr(mul(16, 8), packed)
        }
    }

Dynamic Arrays

To get the bytes32 value at a specific index of a dynamic array, use the sload keyword and pass in the keccak256 of the storage slot of the array + index as parameters.

    uint256[] arr;

    function get(uint256 index) public view returns (uint256 value) {
        uint256 slot;
        assembly {
            slot := arr.slot
        }
        bytes32 location = keccak256(abi.encode(slot));

        assembly{
            value := sload(add(location, index))
        }
    }

Mappings

Simple Mapping

Mappings behave similar to arrays, but they concatenate the key and the mapping's storage slot to get the location of the value.

    mapping(uint256 => uint256) map;

    function get(uint256 key) public view returns (uint256 value) {
        bytes32 slot;
        assembly {
            slot := map.slot
        }
        bytes32 location = keccak256(abi.encode(key, uint256(slot)));

        assembly{
            value := sload(location)
        }
    }

Nested Mappings

Nested mappings are similar, but use hashes of hashes to get the location of the value. The concatenation and the hashing is done from right to left.

    mapping(uint256 => mapping(uint256 => uint256)) map;

    function get(uint256 key1, uint256 key2) public view returns (uint256 value) {
        bytes32 slot;
        assembly {
            slot := map.slot
        }
        bytes32 location = keccak256(abi.encode(key2, keccak256(abi.encode(key1, uint256(slot)))));

        assembly{
            value := sload(location)
        }
    }

Mapping of Arrays

    mapping(address => uint256[]) map;

    function get(address key, uint256 index) public view returns (uint256 value) {
        bytes32 slot;
        assembly {
            slot := map.slot
        }
        bytes32 location = keccak256(abi.encode(keccak256(abi.encode(key, uint256(slot)))));

        assembly{
            value := sload(add(location, index))
        }
    }

Memory

Memory is used for temporary storage of variables. It is cleared at the end of the function call.

Memory is used in the following cases:

Return values to external calls
Set the function arguments for external calls
Get values from external calls
Revert with an error string
Log messages
Create other contracts
Use the keccak256 function

Memory is laid out in 32 byte sequences.

Memory keywords:

mload(p): Retrieves 32 bytes from memory from slot p [p .. 0x20]
mstore(p,v): Stores 32 bytes from v into memory slot p [p .. 0x20]
mstore8(p,v): Like mstore, but only stores 1 byte
msize: Returns the largest accessed memory index in the current transaction

Using mstore 7 into memory slot 0:

    assembly {
        // empty memory looks like this:
        //  00   00   00   00  ...  00   00   00   00
        // 0x00 0x01 0x02 0x03 ... 0x17 0x18 0x19 0x20

        mstore(0, 7)
        // is the same as doing:
        // mstore(0, 0x0000...000007) // 32 bytes

        // the memory now looks like this:
        //  00   00   00   00  ...  00   00   07   00
        // 0x00 0x01 0x02 0x03 ... 0x17 0x18 0x19 0x20
    }

Using mstore8 7 into memory slot 0:

    assembly {
        // empty memory looks like this:
        //  00   00   00   00  ...  00   00   00   00
        // 0x00 0x01 0x02 0x03 ... 0x17 0x18 0x19 0x20

        mstore8(0, 7)
        // is the same as doing:
        // mstore8(0, 0x07) // 1 byte

        // the memory now looks like this:
        //  07   00   00   00  ...  00   00   00   00
        // 0x00 0x01 0x02 0x03 ... 0x17 0x18 0x19 0x20
    }

How Solidity uses memory:

Solidity allocates slots [0x00-0x20], [0x20-0x40] for scratch space (first 2x32 bytes)
Solidity reserves slot [0x40-0x60] as the free memory pointer (the location of the next free memory slot)
Solidity keeps slot [0x60-0x80] empty which is the zero slot. It is used as initial value for dynamic memory arrays and should never be written to.
The action begins at slot [0x80-...]

To get the next free memory slot in Solidity, so you can use it knowing that it is empty, use the following code:

    assembly {
        let freeMemoryPointer := mload(0x40)
    }

While the free memory pointer is automatically updated by Solidity, it is not updated by assembly code, so you have to do it yourself if solidity code follows the in-line assembly code.

Each time when switching from Yul back to Solidity, the free memory pointer should be manually updated so that Solidity can use it:

    assembly {
        // do some memory stuff with 3 slots of memory
        let freeMemoryPointer := mload(0x40)
        mstore(freeMemoryPointer, 1)
        mstore(add(freeMemoryPointer, 0x20), 2)
        mstore(add(freeMemoryPointer, 0x40), 3)

        // update the free memory pointer
        allocate(0x60)

        // function that gets the length of the memory added as input
        // and updates the free memory pointer
        function allocate(length) {
            let pos := mload(0x40)
            mstore(0x40, add(pos, length))
        }
    }

Memory Struct

Adding structs to memory is just like adding their values 1 by 1.

    struct S {
        uint256 a;
        uint256 b;
    }

    function f() external {
        bytes32 freeMemoryPointer;

        S memory s = S(a: 1, b: 2);

        assembly {
            // free memory pointer is now 0x80 + 32 bytes * 2 = 0xc0
            freeMemoryPointer := mload(0x40)

        mload(0x80) // returns a (1)
        mload(0xa0) // returns b (2)
        }
    }

Memory Fixed Arrays

Fixed arrays work just like structs

    function f() external {
        uint256[2] memory arr = [1, 2];

        assembly {
            mload(0x80) // returns 0x0000...000001 (32 bytes)
            mload(0xa0) // returns 0x0000...000002 (32 bytes)
        }
    }

Memory Dynamic Arrays

For dynamic arrays, the first memory slot of 32 bytes is used to store the length of the array. In Yul, the array value is the location of the array in memory.

    function f(uint256[] memory arr) external {
        bytes32 location;
        bytes32 length;

        assembley {
            // the location will be the first free memory pointer: 0x80
            location := arr
            // the length will be the first memory slot of the array: 0x80
            length := arr.length

            mload(add(location, 0x20)) // returns the first element of the array
            mload(add(location, 0x40)) // returns the second element of the array
        }
    }

Memory Dynamic Arrays declared in Solidity

When declaring a dynamic array in Solidity(like bytes and string), but it is not initialized at the same time, the zero slot is used as the initial value(that's where the array pointer points to). It is important that when you use a dynamic array as an assembly block, and that dynamic array is only declared in Solidity and not initialized, you have to initialize it yourself in assembly. Otherwise most likely there will be memory collision because your array will start at the zero slot.

Here's an example of how the b array is initialized to the zero slot and how you would have to initialize it yourself in assembly:

    function f() external returns(bytes memory) {
        bytes memory b;

        // Make the array b = 0xffffff
        assembly {
            // b points to 0x60 at the start of the block

            // make b point to the free memory pointer
            b := mload(0x40)
            // add the length of the array as the first 32 bytes
            mstore(b, 3)
            // add the value of the array as the next 3 bytes
            mstore(add(b, 0x20), 0xffffff0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000)

            // update the free memory pointer so solidity can use it
            mstore(0x40, add(b, 0x40))
        }

        return b;
    }

abi.encode

The operation abi.encode will first push the bytes length of the arguments onto memory and then the arguments. If any argument is smaller than 32 bytes, it will be padded to 32 bytes.

    function f() external {
        abi.encode(uint256(1), uint256(2));

        assembly {
            mload(0x80) // returns 0x0000...000040 (the bytes length of the arguments: 64)
            mload(0xa0) // returns 0x0000...000001 (32 bytes)
            mload(0xc0) // returns 0x0000...000002 (32 bytes)
        }
    }

abi.encodePacked

Compared to abi.encode, abi.encodePacked will not add padding to the arguments.

    function f() external {
        abi.encodePacked(uint256(1), uint128(2));

        assembly {
            mload(0x80) // returns 0x0000...000030 (the bytes length of the arguments: 48)
            mload(0xa0) // returns 0x0000...000001 (32 bytes)
            mload(0xc0) // returns 0x00...0002 (16 bytes)
        }
    }

return

The return(a,b) will take the data from memory, of size 'b' starting from slot a. This allows you to return data that is bigger than 32 bytes.

    function f() external returns (uint256, uint256) {
        assembly {
            // store 1 and 2 in memory slots 0x80 and 0xa0
            mstore(0x80, 1)
            mstore(0xa0, 2)
            // return the data from slot 0x80 while 0x40 being the size of the return data
            return(0x80, 0x40)
        }
    }

If the return data is smaller than 32 bytes, it will not be padded to 32 bytes, so when the actual returned value is smaller than the value the client expects from the function statement, the client will not be able to decode the data. But if the return data is bigger than expected, it will just read the first x bytes it expects and will be able to decode the data.

revert

The args of revert(a,b) are the same as return(a,b), in the sense that it will also return the data from memory, of size 'b' starting from slot a. The difference is that revert will stop the execution of the function(it will not revert the whole transaction and the blockchain state as Solidity does).

    assembly {
        if iszero(ez(caller(), 0xB0B)) {
            // This is the code used most of the time, just to stop the execution
            revert(0, 0)
        }
    }

keccak256

In yul, the keccak256(s,l) will take the data to be hashed from memory, from slot s to slot s + l.

    function f() external {
        assembly {
            // store 1 and 2 in memory slots 0x80 and 0xa0
            mstore(0x80, 1)
            mstore(0xa0, 2)

            // hash the data from slot 0x80 to slot 0xc0(0x80 + 0x40) and store it in slot 0xc0
            mstore(0xc0, keccak256(0x80, 0x40))
        }
    }

Events

The Yul keywords for emitting events are:

log0(p, s) - emits an event with no topics and data of size s starting at memory slot p
log1(p, s, t1) - emits an event with one topic t1 and data of size s starting at memory slot p
log2(p, s, t1, t2) - emits an event with two topics t1, t2 and data of size s starting at memory slot p
log3(p, s, t1, t2, t3) - emits an event with three topics t1, t2, t3 and data of size s starting at memory slot p
log4(p, s, t1, t2, t3, t4) - emits an event with four topics t1, t2, t3, t4 and data of size s starting at memory slot p

The t1 is the keccak256 hash of the event signature, and the t2 is the first indexed argument of the event. The t3 is the second indexed argument of the event, and so on.

    event SomeLog(uint256 indexed a, uint256 indexed b, bool c);

    function f() external {
        assembly {
            // keccak256("SomeLog(uint256,uint256)")
            let signature := 0xc200138117cf199dd335a2c6079a6e1be01e6592b6a76d4b5fc31b169df819cc
            // store 1 in memory slot 0x80
            mstore(0x80, 1)
            // emit the event SomeLog(2, 3, true)
            log3(0x80, 0x20, signature, 2, 3)
        }
    }

Only reading from memory makes msize consider the memory slot as used.

    bytes32 slot;
    bytes32 _msize;

    assembly {
        ssembly {
            // read a bite from memory slot 0xff, and discard the value read
            pop(mload(0xff))
            // the free memory pointer is still 0x80
            slot := mload(0x40)
            // but msize considers the memory slot 0xff as used
            // so _msize is 0x120
            _msize := msize()
        }
    }

Calls

Components of a EVM transaction:

from: tx.origin / origin() - the sender of the transaction
amount: msg.value - the amount of ether sent with the transaction
gasPrice: gasprice() - the gas price of the transaction
data: msg.data - the data sent with the transaction
Solidity reserves the first 4 bytes of msg.data to specify the function selector of the function to be called(the first 4 bytes of the keccak256 of the function selector):
The rest of the msg.data is the abi.encoded arguments of the function call.
Solidity expects the arguments to be 32 bytes, but this is just a convention.
balanceOf(address) -> keccak256("balanceOf(address)")[0:4] -> 0x70a08231
msg.data[0:4] - the function selector
msg.data[4:] - the abi.encoded arguments of the function call
Yul does not have the concept of function selectors, abi.encodeWithSignature or interfaces, so you have to manually encode the arguments and the function selector.

Calling other Solidity contracts in Yul:

call(g, a, v, in, insize, out, outsize) - calls contract at address a with g gas and v wei, input area from in to in + insize and output area from out to out + outsize returning 0 on error (eg. out of gas) and 1 on success.
staticcall(g, a, in, insize, out, outsize) - calls contract at address while guaranteeing no state changes. The input is memory from in to in + insize providing g gas and output area memory from out to out + outsize returning 0 on error (eg. out of gas) and 1 on success.

Function with no params example:

contract A {
    // the function selector of 23() is 0x5c60da1b (keccak256("23()")[0:4])
    function get21() external returns (uint256) {
        return 21;
    }
}
contract B {
    function callGet21(address _a) external view returns (uint256) {
        assembly {
            mstore(0x00, 0x9a884bde)
            // // 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000009a884bde
            // last 4 bytes of the memory slot 0x00 are the function selector of getUint()
            // call the function 23 of contract A
            // and store the result in memory slot 0x00
            if iszero(staticcall(gas(), _a, 28, 4, 0x00, 0x20)) {
                revert(0, 0)
            }
            // return the result from memory slot 0x00
            return(0x00, 0x20)
        }
    }
}

Function with params example:

contract A {
    function sum(uint256 _a, uint256 _b) external pure returns (uint256) {
        return _a + _b;
    }
}

contract B {
    function callSum(address _a) external view returns (uint256) {
        assembly {
            // load the free memory pointer
            let freeMemPointer := mload(0x40)
            // store the function selector of sum(uint256, uint256) in memory
            mstore(freeMemPointer, 0xcad0899b)
            // store the first argument of sum(uint256, uint256) in the next memory slot
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x20), 3)
            // store the second argument of sum(uint256, uint256) in the next memory slot
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x40), 12)
            // update the free memory pointer
            mstore(0x40, add(freeMemPointer, 0x60))
            // memory will look like:
            //  00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000cad0899b
            //  0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003
            //  000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000c

            // call the sum function of contract A
            // and store the result in memory slot 0x00
            if iszero(staticcall(gas(), _a, add(freeMemPointer, 28), 68, 0x00, 0x20)) {
                revert(0,0)
            }
            // return the result from memory slot 0x00
            return(0x00, 0x20)
        }
    }
}

returndatasize() - returns the size of the return data of the last call.
returndatacopy(t, f, s) - copies s bytes from the return data from stack to memory, starting from position f and writes it to memory at position t.

contract A {
    // Function that returns bytes of length len
    function getBytes(uint256 len) external pure returns (bytes memory result) {
        result = new bytes(len);
        for (uint256 i; i < len; i ++) {
            result[i] = 0xab;
        }
    }
}

contract B {
    function callGetBytes(address _a) external view returns (bytes memory) {
        assembly {
            // load the free memory pointer
            let freeMemPointer := mload(0x40)
            // store the function selector of getBytes(uint256) in memory
            mstore(freeMemPointer, 0x57bc2ef3)
            // store the argument 10 for getBytes(uint256) in the next memory slot
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x20), 10)
            // update the free memory pointer
            mstore(0x40, add(freeMemPointer, 0x40))

            // call the getBytes function of contract A and don't store the result
            if iszero(staticcall(gas(), _a, add(freeMemPointer, 28), 36, 0x00, 0x00)) {
                revert(0,0)
            }

            // store the return data in memory starting from the free memory pointer
            returndatacopy(mload(0x40), 0 , returndatasize())
            // return the result from memory
            return(mload(0x40), returndatasize())
        }
    }
}

delegatecall(g, a, in, insize, out, outsize) - calls contract at address a with g gas and input area from in to in + insize and output area from out to out + outsize returning 0 on error (eg. out of gas) and 1 on success. The code is executed in the context of the current contract, i.e. msg.sender and msg.value do not change.

OpenZeppelin Proxy implementation:

function _delegate(address implementation) internal virtual {
        assembly {
            // Copy msg.data. We take full control of memory in this inline assembly
            // block because it will not return to Solidity code. We overwrite the
            // Solidity scratch pad at memory position 0.
            calldatacopy(0, 0, calldatasize())

            // Call the implementation.
            // out and outsize are 0 because we don't know the size yet.
            let result := delegatecall(gas(), implementation, 0, calldatasize(), 0, 0)

            // Copy the returned data.
            returndatacopy(0, 0, returndatasize())

            switch result
            // delegatecall returns 0 on error.
            case 0 {
                revert(0, returndatasize())
            }
            default {
                return(0, returndatasize())
            }
        }
    }

calldatasize() - returns the size of the calldata for the last call in bytes.
calldatacopy(t, f, s) - copies s bytes from the calldata from stack to memory, starting from position f and writes it to memory at position t.
calldataload(p) - loads 32 bytes from the calldata starting from byte position p.
Encoding dynamic size elements in calldata:

// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
pragma solidity ^0.8.0;

contract A {
    // Function that returns true if data1 is in data2, false otherwise
    function f(uint256 data1, uint256[] calldata data2) external pure returns (bool) {
        for(uint256 i; i < data2.length; i++) {
            if(data1 == data2[i]){
                return true;
            }
        }
        return false;
    }
}

contract B {
    function callF(address _a) external view returns(bool) {
        assembly {
            // load the free memory pointer
            let freeMemPointer := mload(0x40)
            // store the first 4 bytes of kecack256("f(uint256, uint256[])") in memory
            mstore(freeMemPointer, 0xbfda4ee2)
            // store the uint256 1 to pass as data1
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x20), 1)
            // store the location of the array in calldata
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x40), 0x40)
            // store the length of the array
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x60), 2)
            // store the first element of the array
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0x80), 3)
            // store the second element of the array
            mstore(add(freeMemPointer, 0xa0), 1)
            // update the free memory pointer
            mstore(0x40, add(freeMemPointer, 0xc0))

            // the memory from freeMemPointer to new free memory pointer is used as call data. It will look like this:
            // 0x00 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 - data1 uint256
            // 0x20 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000040 - location of the array in calldata
            // 0x40 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002 - length of the array
            // 0x60 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000003 - first element of the array is 0
            // 0x80 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 - second element of the array is 1

            if iszero(staticcall(gas(), _a, add(freeMemPointer, 28), 164, 0x00, 0x20)) {
                revert(0,0)
            }
            // the function will return true
            return(0x00, 0x20)
        }
    }
}

Transfers

To transfer Ether to another address, the call function is used:

contract A {
    address owner;

    function transfer(address payable _to, uint256 _amount) external {
        assembly {
            if iszero(call(gas(), owner, selfbalance(), 0, 0, 0, 0)) {
                revert(0,0)
            }
        }
    }
}

selfbalance() - returns the balance of the current contract.

Receiving calls from Solidity Contracts

To receive calls from Solidity contracts, the fallback function is used, which is called when no other function matches the given function signature.

// the interface the Solidity contract will use to call the Yul contract
interface IYulContract {
    function get23() external returns (uint256);
    function increment(uint256 _value) external returns (uint256);
}

contract YulContract{
    fallback(bytes calldata data) external returns (bytes memory returnData) {
        assembly{
            let callData := calldataload(0)
            // 0x259c137d00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 or
            // 0x7cf5dab000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
            let selector := shr(0xe0, callData) // shift right 224 bits to get the last 4 bytes(32 bits)

            // Switch in Yul is similar to if else, but it can only compare for equality.
            // Once a case is matched, other cases are not checked.
            switch
            // In case the selector is 0x259c137d, call get23()
            case 0x259c137d {
                returnUint(23)
            }
            // In case the selector is 0x7cf5dab0, call increment()
            case 0x7cf5dab0 {
                returnUint(increment())
            }
            // In case the selector is none of the above, revert
            default {
                revert(0,0)
            }

            function returnUint(uint) {
                mstore(0x00, uint)
                // this will return to the Solidity contract, ending the Yul contract execution
                return(0x00, 0x20)
            }

            function increment() -> result {
                // if the param size is bigger than 36 bytes(4 function selector + 32 param), revert
                if lt(calldatasize(), 36) {
                    revert(0,0)
                }

                let param := calldataload(4)
                result := add(param, 1)
                // leave will return "result", while returning to the yul execution instead
                // the Solidity contract as return does
                leave
            }
        }
    }
}

Contract fully written in Yul

The following contract is fully written in Yul:

Contract are object in Yul, and the code section is the actual Yul code.
The object section is used to define functions and variables that can be used in the code section.
Yul does not have to respect call data and function selectors.

The following example of a contract written in Yul, will return the string "Hello World" when called.

object "FullyYul" {
    // Basic constructor
    code {
        // store the caller address in storage slot 0
        sstore(0, caller())
        // return the bytecode of the contract
        datacopy(0x00, dataoffset("runtime"), datasize("runtime"))
        return(0x00, datasize("runtime"))
    }

    // The code of the contract
    object "runtime" {
        code {
            // returns the "Message" data
            datacopy(0x00, dataoffset("Message"), datasize("Message"))
            return (0x00, datasize("Message"))
        }

        // Stores data in the contract bytecode
        data "Message" "Hello World"
    }
}

Require

function require(condition) {
    // if condition is false, revert
    if iszero(condition) { revert(0, 0) }
}

Check if a 32 bytes value is a valid Ethereum address

function isAddress(value) -> result {
    // 0xffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff is used as a 32 bytes value by not, so it
    // will be padded to 0x000000000000000000000000ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

    // the result of not will be
    // 0xffffffffffffffffffffffff0000000000000000000000000000000000000000

    // and a ethereum address is 20 bytes, so padded in 32 bytes looks like this:
    // 0x000000000000000000000000A4Ad17ef801Fa4bD44b758E5Ae8B2169f59B666F

    // so the result of AND will be 0 if the value is the length of an ethereum address
    if iszero(and(v, not(0xffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff))) {
        result := 1
        leave
    }
}

Checking for overflow in Yul

Addition: check if the sum of two values is less than either of the values.

function safeAdd(a, b) -> result {
    r := add(a, b)
    // OR is a smart way of the values is true, because if one of the values is 1, the result will be 1
    if or(lt(r, a), lt(r, b)) {
        revert(0,0)
    }
}

Subtraction: check if the minuend is lower than the subtrahend.

function safeSub(a, b) -> result {
    if lt(a, b) {
        revert(0,0)
    }
    result := sub(a, b)
}

Multiplication: if the product divided by the first value is not equal to the second value, then there is an overflow. There is an edge case when a is 0, so we have to check for that.

function safeMul(a, b) -> result {
    switch a
    case 0 {result := 0}
    default {
        result := mul(a, b)
        if iszero(eq(div(result, a), b)) {
            revert(0,0)
        }
    }
}

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